Deep Ecology

The term deep ecology was coined by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess (b. 1912) in 1973 to contrast two different approaches to environmental concerns. Whereas shallow ecology merely seeks to avoid excessive pollution and resource depletion, deep ecology advocates the need for fundamental shifts in perception, values, and lifestyles. Its basic premises are the intrinsic value of nature, the critique of industrial materialism and technology, and the application of ecological principles to human moral evaluations and actions. The word deep refers to the level at which human purposes and values are questioned. The goal of deep ecology is to clarify value priorities when establishing policies and practices.

Naess, influenced by Dutch philosopher Baruch de Spinoza and Indian political and spiritual leader Mohandas Gandhi, advocates a philosophy of ecological harmony and equilibrium (ecosophy) through four levels of questioning: (1) ultimate premises based on a person's worldview, for example, a particular religion or philosophy; (2) eight "Platform Principles" as common core principles independent of worldview; (3) general consequences derived from the platform; and (4) concrete decisions chosen by individuals and groups. Deep ecology challenges religions to respond to the concerns of environmental philosophy and so encourages the interconnection between religious and philosophical worldviews, scientific and empathetic studies of nature, and public policy and ethics. Deep ecology has been criticized for insufficient attention to gender issues, biocentric egalitarianism, and not adequately addressing economical and political injustices.

See also ECOFEMINISM; ECOLOGY; ECOLOGY, ETHICS OF; ECOLOGY, RELIGIOUS AND PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS; ECOLOGY, SCIENCE OF; GAIA HYPOTHESIS

Bibliography

Devall, Bill, and Sessions, George. Deep Ecology: Living as if Nature Mattered. Salt Lake City, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 1985.

Naess, Arne. "The Shallow and the Deep: Long-range Ecology Movements." Inquiry 16 (1973): 95–100.

Naess, Arne. Ecology, Community and Lifestyle, trans. and ed. David Rothenberg. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Reed, Peter, and Rothenberg, David. Wisdom in the Open Air: The Norwegian Roots of Deep Ecology. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

Rothenberg, David. Is It Painful to Think? Conversations with Arne Naess. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

Sessions, George, ed. Deep Ecology for the Twenty-First Century. Boston and London: Shambala, 1995.

ROALD E. KRISTIANSEN