About the Annotated Bibliography

This Annotated Bibliography is intended as a starting point for readers who want to explore some of the themes described in the entries in more detail, or who would like to know more about the religion and science dialogue in general. Without claiming to be exhaustive, the Bibliography contains works that are generally regarded as having had a significant impact on the dialogue. The first three sections contain general introductory, methodological, and historical works. Sections four through twelve contain works on specific scientific and/or religious issues. Most works contain extensive bibliographies which will aid further research.

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTIONS AND TEXTBOOKS

Barbour, Ian G. Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997.

The classic comprehensive introduction to the field. This revised and expanded edition of Barbour's Gifford Lectures deals with most aspects of the modern science and religion dialogue, and offers many reading suggestions. It also contains the famous fourfold typology of relating science and religion: conflict, independence, dialogue, and integration. Though it is mainly intended as an overview of the field, Barbour defends a "theology of nature" position coupled with a cautious use of process philosophy.

Clayton, Philip. God and Contemporary Science. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997.

This study in philosophical theology deals with contemporary scientific theories and their ramifications for theological views of God and divine agency. Clayton argues that naturalism can be countered by relating science and religion in a panentheist framework. As such, he argues for an 'emergentist supervenience' model of divine action.

Richardson, W. Mark, and Wildman, Wesley, J., eds. Religion and Science: History, Method, Dialogue. New York and London: Routledge, 1996.

This voluminous collection of essays considers the venture of building bridges between science and religion, both historically and methodologically (parts I and II). Part III is a collection of essays by prominent theologians and scientists trying to bring the major contemporary scientific theories into contact with theological doctrines. An extensive thematically structured list of suggested scientific and theological readings concludes this interdisciplinary book.

Southgate, Christopher, ed. God, Humanity and the Cosmos: A Textbook in Science and Religion. Harrisburg, Pa: Trinity Press, 1999.

This textbook surveys historical and philosophical aspects of relating science and religion, and highlights many facets of modern scientific theories. It also includes discussions on topics which are often left out, such as the relation between psychology and theology, science and education, Islamic perspectives, and issues of technology and ethics. The individual chapters are clearly structured into many subsections with many cross-references which makes the book usable not only for introductory courses on science and religion but also for self-study.

2. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE & RELIGION

Barbour, Ian G. Myths, Models, and Paradigms: A Comparative Study in Science & Religion. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1974.

This book centers around three themes. The first is the different functions and internal logics of scientific and religious language. The second theme concerns the role of models in science and religion and their function for interpreting experience and restructuring our worldview. Thirdly the role of paradigms in science and religion is highlighted. Barbour concludes that both science and religion offer knowledge of reality based on experience. This work also offers the philosophical basics of so-called 'critical realism' in science and religion.

Drees, Willem B. Religion, Science and Naturalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

In this work, Drees adopts an explicitly naturalistic stance. Many theological issues are considered and critically analyzed according to a extensively outlined naturalist methodology. Drees concludes that a naturalist methodology has serious repercussions for the theological worldview as well as for religious anthropology. Drees sees religion embedded in our evolutionary history and our neurophysiological constitution, and values religious traditions as important for their wisdom and prophetic vision. He also raises the important issue of 'limit questions': the questions that science raises but cannot answer.

Gregersen, Niels H., and Van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel, eds. Rethinking Theology and Science: Six Models for the Current Dialogue. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1998.

In six essays an equal number of different models for relating theology and science are outlined. Van Huyssteen writes on postfoundationalism; van Kooten Niekerk presents a version of critical realism; Drees outlines naturalism; Herrmann expounds on a nonintegrative pragmatic approach; Watts writes on the complementarity between science and theology; and finally, Gregersen presents a contextual coherence theory that indicates that contact between theology and science takes place on several levels. Every approach tries to absorb the cognitive pluralism and counter relativist currents that threaten the science and religion dialogue.

Murphy, Nancey. Theology for an Age of Scientific Reasoning. Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1990.

Murphy's acclaimed book deals with the challenge of skepticism regarding Christian belief. Against the claims of the non- or irrationality of Christian belief over against the rationality of science, Murphy defends the view that religious belief is as rational as science. Murphy refers to Lakatos's methodology of scientific research programs arguing that religious reasoning is similar to scientific procedure. She tests the viability of her proposal by investigating actual theological research programs, such as Pannenberg's and Roman Catholic Modernism, concluding that theology makes claims to knowledge in the same way as science does.

Torrance, Thomas F. Theological Science. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.

Theology here is taken by Torrance, influenced by Barth, as the science of God. The methodological and epistemological issues connected with such a concept of theology commit theologians to a dialogue with other sciences and with philosophy, for they all use reason as the basic instrument, be it directed at different subject-matters. Science and theology nowadays share the same problem: how to attain knowledge of what goes beyond ourselves without imposing our presuppositions on reality. This book specifically deals with the methodological issues this problem raises for theology.

3. HISTORY OF SCIENCE & RELIGION

Brooke, John Hedley. Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Brooke's work challenges the 'warfare' image of the history of the relation between science and religion by emphasizing contextual shifts. The essays contained in this volume all highlight specific historical periods in which science and religion interacted (such as the age of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment) or specific issues on which science and religions (dis)agreed (such as the clockwork universe, natural theology, and evolutionary theory). Brooke links his historical reflections to the twentieth-century science and religion dialogue. An extensive bibliographical essay concludes this volume.

Funkenstein, Amos. Theology and the Scientific Imagination: From the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986.

This study addresses the transition from medieval to modern modes of thought. Funkenstein argues that the divine attributes of omnipresence, omnipotence, and providence contributed to but also underwent reinterpretation because of the emergence of the natural sciences. Due to the resultant theological and scientific changes, there arose in the seventeenth century a new ideal of knowledge: the ideal of knowledge-bydoing or knowledge by construction. Funkenstein argues that these developments eventually lead to the 'de-theologization' of science in Enlightenment thought.

Lindberg, David C., and Numbers, Ronald L., eds. God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1986.

These essays cover the periods of the Early Church, the Middle Ages and the controversy surrounding Galileo, the seventeenth century Scientific Revolution and the rise of Darwin's evolutionary theory, and contemporary debates concerning Creationism and the relation between present-day protestant theology and science. The essays attempt to counter the 'warfare' thesis, and show that a highly delicate historical account of the interplay between religion and science is possible.

White, Andrew Dickson. A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. London and New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1896.

Now generally regarded as one of the founding fathers of the so-called 'warfare'-thesis of religion and science, White sets out to describe the history of the relation between religion and science in terms of an ageold conflict. Evolutionary theory, geography and geology, astronomy, miracles and magic, archeology, anthropology and ethnology, history, meteorology, chemistry and physics, philology, psychology, politics and economy - all these domains are covered in the more than 900 pages of White's account of the battle between the religious and the scientific worldview.

4. PHYSICS & RELIGION

Barrow, John D. and Tipler, Frank J. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford, UK and New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

An astronomer and a physicist try to explain the relation between the properties of the universe and the existence of life. Covering the history of design arguments and teleological principles, as well as modern cosmology and astrophysics, the authors argue that modern physics and cosmology indicate that life is not accidental. They claim that modern science contains evidence for both the weak and the strong anthropic principles, stating that there is a close connection between the universe as it is and the emergence of carbon-based observers.

Davies, Paul. God and the New Physics. London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1983.

Davies expounds on "the impact of the new physics on what were formerly religious issues," and concludes that "science offers a surer path than religion in the search of God." This book deals with physical, philosophical, and theological issues such as mind and soul, determinism and free will, and miracles. Davies reworked some of the controversial statements in this work in a sequel The Mind of God: The Scientific Basis for a Rational World. (New York etc.: Simon & Schuster, 1992).

Drees, Willem B. Beyond the Big Bang: Quantum Cosmologies and God. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1990.

Without too many technicalities, Drees discusses issues at the interface of science and religion, such as: Does Big Bang cosmology have any relation to the Christian doctrine of creation ex nihilo? What does quantum cosmology state about 'the beginning' of the universe? Do the 'anthropic principles' have any scientific groundings? And how does eschatology fare in the light of the scientific cosmological futures? Some methodological reflections already foreshadow his naturalist position.

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; and Isham, C.J., eds. Quantum Cosmology and the Laws of Nature: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. 2nd Edition. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory, 1999.

A collection of interdisciplinary essays written by leading scientists, theologians, and philosophers of religion on the implications of quantum cosmology and the status of the laws of nature for theological and philosophical issues regarding God's action in the world. The essays are clustered into five sections: the scientific background of quantum cosmology, methodological remarks on relating science and theology, philosophical issues on time and the laws of nature, and two sections on theological implications.

Worthing, Mark William. God, Creation, and Contemporary Physics. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1996.

Worthing's book surveys the links between theories from physics and cosmology and the theological issues of God's existence, creation out of nothing, and divine action. He also describes possible consequences of physical theories for Christian eschatology. The conclusion of the book is that theology cannot, strictly speaking, challenge the scientific conclusions drawn from the new physics, but theology must take notice of the metaphysical and theological implications of these theories.

5. BIOLOGY & RELIGION

Behe, Michael. Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. New York: The Free Press, 1996.

Behe's book is one of the basic writings of the so-called 'Intelligent Design' movement. Behe argues that evolution takes place on the molecular level where science has shown that 'irreducibly complex' system exist: systems that cannot have evolved, but must have come into existence in one piece. Behe claims that the molecular basis of life is irreducibly complex, and, hence, cannot properly be described by the Darwinian evolutionary theory. Therefore, 'intelligent design' is the only plausible explanation for this irreducible complexity and for life.

Dembski, William A. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science & Theology. Downers Grove, Il: Inter-Varsity Press, 1999.

In this book Dembski explains what the Intelligent Design movement is about: a scientific research program, anti-naturalistic, and a theology of divine action. Standing in the tradition of British natural theology, ID attempts to reinstate design within science, especially in the irreducible complexity of biological sciences. Dembski claims that by referring to empirically detectable signs of intelligent design, theology and science are able to provide epistemic support for each other's claims.

Durant, John, ed. Darwinism and Divinity: Essays on Evolution and Religious Belief. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1985.

In seven interdisciplinary essays, historians, theologians, anthropologists, sociologists, and philosophers use their expertise to shed some light on the question how evolutionary thought affects religious belief. The essays are written from different perspectives, which results in a kaleidoscope of views instead of a unitary vision. The authors not only consider the impact of evolution on religious thought, but also ask how religion affected evolutionary thinking. Some of the essays deal explicitly with discussions surrounding creationism.

Haught, John F. God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2000.

According to Haught, the discussions between die-hard evolutionists like Daniel Dennett and Richard Dawkins and Christian apologists all rest on the same mistake: both groups focus too much on static design and (dis)order in the universe. Haught, on the other hand, emphasizes the dynamic aspects of creativity and novelty that emerge in the process of evolution. He shows how these aspects are compatible with a concept of God that is described in partly Teilhardian and partly process-theological terms.

Hefner, Philip. The Human Factor: Evolution, Culture, and Religion. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1993.

This book aims "at a theological anthropology in the light of the natural sciences." Especially noteworthy is Hefner's hypothesis that humans are 'created co-creators' with God, which proved influential in the science and religion dialogue. This hypothesis, emphasizing the potentials of human beings, is the red line of the book. The five parts that make up this book contain theoretical reflections on science and religion, reflections on nature, freedom, culture (including ethics), and connections with theology.

Numbers, Ronald L. The Creationists. Berkeley, Calif.: The University of California Press, 1993.

Numbers provides a detailed history of creationist lines of thinking from Darwin on until the renewed interest since the 1960s in the US. He shows that many paradigm shifts have taken place within the creationist framework, specifically with regard to 'catastrophism,' the antiquity of the earth, and the geological interpretations of the Genesis Flood. Numbers also shows how creationism became institutionalized, and how the churches responded to creationist thought, and argues that creationism questions the integrity and meaning of science itself.

Peacocke, Arthur. God and the New Biology. London andMelbourne: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 1986.

Peacocke sets out to describe how the perspective of the new biology, with its "increasing apprehension of the labyrinthine complexity of the molecular processes and structures that are involved in the dynamics of a living organism," relates to a new understanding of the interrelations between humans, evolution, and God. Taking the issue of reductionism as his starting point, Peacocke argues that the new biology shows nature to be multi-leveled and hierarchical with new emergent features developing all the time. He also discusses sociobiology and Dawkins' 'selfish gene' idea.

Ruse, Michael. Can a Darwinian Be a Christian? The Relationship Between Science and Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Evolutionary theory meets the Christian religion in this work by an eminent philosopher. The book does not treat the dialogue between science and religion on a general level, but shows how concrete Christian doctrines are confronted by evolutionary thought. Ruse argues against Intelligent Design and Creationism, and argues in favor of social Darwinism and sociobiology. He concludes that nothing precludes a Darwinian to be a Christian, though at times it may be challenging and difficult.

Russell, Robert John; Stoeger, William R.; and Ayala, Francisco J., eds. Evolutionary and Molecular Biology: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory, 1999.

A collection of interdisciplinary essays written by leading scientists, theologians, and philosophers of religion on the implications of evolutionary and molecular biology for the concept of divine action. In four sections the authors deal with the scientific background of evolution and molecular biology; the relation between evolution and divine action; religious interpretations of biological themes; and the interrelations between biology, ethics, and the problem of evil.

Ward, Keith. God, Chance & Necessity. Oxford: Oneworld, 1996.

Ward argues against the scientistic and materialist claims like those of Richard Dawkins, Peter Atkins, and Michael Ruse who see the universe as governed by chance and not by purpose. Ward takes their claims seriously, but shows how these scientistic claims ultimately point in the direction of God's existence as the best available explanation. Though the book focuses on (neo-)Darwinian evolutionary theory, Ward also touches upon cosmology, the problem of entropy and emergence, and the mystery of consciousness.

6. MATHEMATICS, COMPUTER SCIENCE & RELIGION

Gell-Mann, Murray. The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex. London: Little, Brown and Company, 1994.

Gell-Mann, a Nobel Prize-winning theoretical physicist, explores the relationships between various scientific concepts of simplicity and complexity. The central focus of the book is the notion of complex adaptive systems: systems that evolve and learn by acquiring information. Gell-Mann's account covers many terrains: quantum mechanics and the fundamental laws of physics, information theory, biological evolution, human creative thinking, and ecology.

Gregersen, Niels Henrik, ed. From Complexity to Life: On the Emergence of Life and Meaning. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

In the three parts that make up this book the link between complexity and information, the origin of life, and the nature of the universe is investigated. Complexity scientists, theologians, and philosophers of religion explore questions of defining complexity, the nature and role of information in physics and biology, and philosophical and religious perspectives on the meaning of emergence and complexity.

Herzfeld, Noreen L. In Our Image: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Spirit. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 2002.

This book charts some of the consequences of the sciences of Artificial Intelligence for our idea of what it means to be human, and how AI affects the phrase that we are created in God's image. Dealing with these and related issues, Herzfeld develops a model of relationality: "The way we define God's image in our human nature or our image in the computer has implications, not only for how we view ourselves but also for how we relate to God, to one another, and to our own creations."

Puddefoot, John. God and the Mind Machine: Computers, Artificial Intelligence and the Human Soul. London: SPCK, 1996.

Issues surrounding computers, life, intelligence, and the human soul are the focus of this book. It addresses the question of how to relate theology to issues concerning computer science and Artificial Intelligence. This book addresses the growing anxiety among religious believers that developments in computer science and Artificial Intelligence will take away the soul. Puddefoot argues that these scientific developments might be seen as part of God's purpose with the universe. Though Puddefoot draws no definite conclusions, his study does give impetus to further explorations and reflections.

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; and Peacocke, Arthur R., eds. Chaos and Complexity: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS & Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory, 1995.

A collection of essays of eminent scientists, theologians, and philosophers of religion on the implications of chaos and self-organization in physical, chemical, and biological systems for philosophical and theological issues regarding divine action in the world. The first section contains two introductory essays on the scientific aspects of chaos and complexity. The second relates chaos and complexity to the philosophy of life. The third and fourth sections link chaos and complexity to divine action and explore alternative approaches of divine action. The whole constitutes a detailed overview of the contemporary reception of the sciences of nonlinear systems in theological reflection.

Smith, Peter. Explaining Chaos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

This volume is a mildly technical introduction to the concepts of chaos theory and its philosophical implications. It is especially noteworthy that Smith makes a distinction between the mathematics of chaos and its empirical applications. Fractals, the problem of predictability and explanation, the difference between chaos and randomness, and the definition of chaos - these are only a few of the many issues that Smith covers.

7. THE HUMAN SCIENCES & RELIGION

d'Aquili, Eugene and Newberg, Andrew B. The Mystical Mind: Probing the Biology of Religious Experience. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1999.

D'Aquili and Newberg attempt to integrate theology and neuroscience by exploring "the issue of how 'ultimate being' is perceived and experienced by the human brain and mind." The authors introduce basic concepts from theology and neuroscience, and explore the role of the brain and mind in myth-making, ritual and liturgy, meditation, near-death experiences and mysticism. Both Eastern and Western religious traditions are taken into account. Finally, they try to integrate their findings into a phenomenological 'neurotheology.'

Austin, James H. Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998.

Meditation and neurology are brought together in an attempt to unravel the mystery of consciousness and enlightenment or 'peak' experiences. Austin takes Zen meditation as his starting point, and describes the physiological mechanisms involved. Thereafter he summarizes some of the latest developments in brain research and defines the usual states of consciousness and their alternative expressions. Finally alternate meditative states of consciousness as well as enlightenment experiences are investigated.

Brown, Warren S.; Murphy, Nancey; and Malony, Newton H., eds. Whatever Happened to the Soul? Scientific and Theological Portraits of Human Nature. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1998.

This interdisciplinary volume contains ten essays by scientists and theologians on scientific and theological aspects of human nature. Special focus is on the idea of the soul. Many authors adopt the position of 'nonreductive physicalism,' a holistic or monistic view over against a dualist view of mind and brain. From this perspective the soul is described as "a functional capacity of a complex physical organism."

Mithen, Steven. The Prehistory of Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion and Science. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996.

Mithen's book is a mixture of an archeological account of the prehistoric roots of our minds, connected to the emergence of art and religion, and a study in the philosophy of mind, seeing in the archeological data evidence for the modularity of the human brain. Mithen argues there is a common origin to art, religion, and science in the prehistoric usage of the mind, which led, through a series of evolutionary phases of specialization and collaboration, to our modular minds.

Palmer, Michael. Freud and Jung on Religion. London/New York: Routledge, 1997.

Today's psychology is still very much indebted to the two founding fathers of twentieth-century psychology, Sigmund Freud and Karl Gustav Jung. Their relation to religion is often interpreted in ambiguous fashion: Freud as a reductionist enemy of religion, and Jung as a New Age enthusiast. In this volume, Palmer goes back to the basics of Freud's and Jung's own writings on the psychology of religion, linking their claims on religion to their psychological theories, and drawing comparisons between their respective positions whilst critically evaluating their claims.

Peters, Ted. Playing God? Genetic Determinism and Human Freedom. New York and London: Routledge, 1997.

Thinking about genetics is closely bound to problems of determinism and human freedom. According to Peters, a cultural expression of this is the 'gene myth,' which asserts that everything that makes us distinctively human is genetically determined. Peters confronts this myth with the theological view of humans as future-oriented and as co-creative with God. This view will lead to a healthy ethics for guiding genetic research which should be used "to relieve human suffering and to make this a better world in which to live."

Rolston, Holmes, III. Genes, Genesis and God: Values and their Origins in Natural and Human History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Based on Rolston's Gifford Lectures, this study explores the connections between religion, ethics, and biological accounts of genetic influences. Rolston strongly argues against sociobiological accounts that reduce religion and ethics to biological features. He interprets evolutionary history as the genesis and history of natural values, which are conserved and transmitted by science, religion, and ethics. He claims that the sociobiological reductionists miss an important point by misunderstanding how these values are transmitted and shared. As such, Rolston assigns a prominent role to culture, and accordingly links 'nurture' intimately with 'nature.'

Russell, Robert John; Murphy, Nancey; Meyering, Theo C.; and Arbib, Michael A. eds. Neuroscience and the Person: Scientific Perspectives on Divine Action. Berkeley, Calif.: CTNS and Vatican City State: Vatican Observatory, 1999.

Another collection of essays written by scientists, philosophers, and theologians ranging the broad terrain of the cognitive neurosciences and their implications for philosophy, theology, and models of divine action. Many essays revolve around the issues of the sense of self and soul, the person, and religious anthropology. One can find also philosophical accounts on the relation between mind and brain, theories of supervenience, emergence, and Artificial Intelligence.

8. FEMINIST APPROACHES TO RELIGION & SCIENCE

Haraway, Donna J. Modest Witness, Second Millennium. FemaleMan© Meets OncoMouse™: Feminism and Technoscience. New York and London: Routledge, 1997.

A study on the many facets of technoscience and their implications for our view of the world, and for feminism in particular. Haraway argues that the information sciences and the technological applications for the life sciences are changing our view of reality and of ourselves, and she specifically explores the idea of 'cyborgs,' beings that are part human part machine. She further reflects on the changing values and ethical aspects of technoscience.

Harding, Sandra. Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? Thinking from Women's Lives. Cornell: Cornell University Press, 1991.

A variety of contemporary voices from many different perspectives criticizes mainstream science and technology. This study links the feminist criticisms on Western science, technology, and epistemology to these other perspectives. Two red lines run through the ten essays contained in this book. First, the evaluation of interrelations between science, models of knowledge and the Western society and culture, and the creation of 'others' which are outside the mainstream society or culture. Secondly, Harding tries to show how feminisms are influenced by and influencing other liberatory movements.

Tuana, Nancy. The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious, and Philosophical Conceptions of Women's Nature. Bloomington/Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993.

Tuana argues that religion and philosophy have affected and have been influenced by scientific theories of women's nature and her inferiority to man. The book gives a historical account of these matters from the classical period until the nineteenth century. The central claim is that the belief "that woman is less than man … is more than simple bias, easily amenable to revision. It is part of our inherited metaphysics." Exposing metaphysical assumption will benefit critical reexamination and openness to alternatives.

Wertheim, Margaret. Pythagoras' Trousers: God, Physics, and the Gender Wars. New York: Norton, 1997.

Wertheim explores the history of the interconnections between science and the wider cultural sphere. Her claim is that the relation between science and religion is more intimate than is often thought. Under the influence of the idea of a heavenly realm of mathematics, scientists, and especially physicists, received in our Western society a priest-like status. As Wertheim argues, this 'priestly' nature of science is also largely responsible for the masculine character of many sciences, and for the difficulties that women experience when they want to participate in this culture.

9. PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE & RELIGION

Clayton, Philip. Explanation from Physics to Theology: An Essay in Rationality and Religion. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989.

Does religion give explanations similar to scientific explanations? To find an answer to this question, Clayton investigates the nature and justification of explanatory claims in both the natural and the social sciences, and argues that when the concept of explanation is not reduced to merely scientific explanation, religious experiences and beliefs can appropriately be said to function as explanations. The upshot is that the function of religious and scientific explanations are comparable.

Pannenberg, Wolfhart. Theology and the Philosophy of Science. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976.

This volume explicitly addresses the issue whether or not theology is a science. Pannenberg gives detailed expositions of theology's struggles with Logical Positivism, and Positivism's struggle with the critical rationalism of Popper. He also considers the relation between the natural and social sciences, and the role of hermeneutics. Ultimately, Pannenberg argues that theology is a science: the 'science of God,' whilst doctrines could be considered as hypotheses.

Stenmark, Mikael. Rationality in Science, Religion, and Everyday Life: A Critical Evaluation of Four Models of Rationality.Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995.

In this study, Stenmark distinguishes four models of rationality and discusses what these models entail especially for science, religion, and our everyday life. Instead of employing an abstract model of rationality and attempting to incorporate these three areas, Stenmark opts to start with rationality as practice-oriented and as mirroring actual human practices. This leads him to his 'presumptionist' model of rationality: in both science and religion it is rational to accept a belief unless there are good reasons to abandon it.

Stenmark, Mikael. Scientism: Science, Ethics and Religion. Aldershot etc.: Ashgate, 2001.

In the first chapter, Stenmark provides an impressive overview of the different kinds of 'scientism,' basically the view that there is nothing "outside the domain of science nor any area of human life to which science cannot successfully be applied." In subsequent chapters Stenmark attempts to debunk scientistic claims with regard to knowledge and reality, morality and ethics, and religion. He concludes that scientism is a metaphysical belief akin to religious belief, and urges scientists to become more conscious of the limitations of the scientific enterprise.

van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel. The Shaping of Rationality: Toward Interdisciplinarity in Theology and Science. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999.

Van Huyssteen explores possibilities of interdisciplinary dialogue between theology and science based on mutual respect and understanding. He tries to steer away from both extremes of modernist foundationalism and postmodernist relativism by developing a postfoundationalist position which emphasizes contextuality, embedded experience, and the 'transversal' potentiality of rationality to reach beyond the confines of the local community. Van Huyssteen emphasizes the specific rationality of theology over against scientistic, foundationalist, and relativist tendencies in modern philosophy of science and the broader culture.

10. THEOLOGY & THE SCIENCES

Allen, Diogenes. Christian Belief in a Postmodern World: The Full Wealth of Conviction. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1989.

Allen is of the opinion that the Enlightenment has expelled God from the world, while faith has been reduced to either fideism of relativism. However, now that we have seen the decline of the Enlightenment project, there may be new possibilities for faith to experience God. In an attempt at rediscovering the riches of the Christian faith, Allen describes how the order of nature can be seen as a witness to God's existence. He also highlights the reasonability of faith and revelation, divine action, and the issue of other faiths.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Religion and the Order of Nature. New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Although the focus of this work is mainly on Western religious interpretations of nature and the interplay between religion, science, and philosophy, Nasr explicitly invokes other religious traditions as well, especially the Islamic tradition. In a blend of historical, philosophical, and religious writing, Nasr tries to indicate how the different religious traditions embody wisdom that can help overcome the contemporary ecological crises, while establishing a new religious worldview based on the re-sacralization of nature.

Peacocke, Arthur. Theology for a Scientific Age: Being and Becoming - Natural, Divine and Human. London: SCM Press, 1993.

In this book, based on his Gifford Lectures, Peacocke explores the implications of the sciences for theological doctrine. Focusing on the concept of God, God's interaction with the world, and God's communication with humanity through Jesus Christ, he constructs a panentheist framework in which the world is seen as a many-leveled emergent whole governed by the dynamic interplay of chance and necessity.

Peters, Ted. God as Trinity: Relationality and Temporality in Divine Life. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1993.

The Christian doctrine of the Trinity is explored in relation to some contemporary issues in theology and science. Peters gives an introduction to 'Trinity Talk,' and addresses some contemporary moral and theological issues. He also gives an overview of the trinitarian views of several twentieth-century theologians. Finally, relations to philosophy and science, especially regarding temporality, are explored.

Polkinghorne, John, ed. The Work of Love: Creation as Kenosis. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans and London: SPCK, 2001.

'Kenosis' or the self-limitation of God has increasingly gained attention. It refers to the idea that God voluntarily limited his power so as to allow for freedom for finite creatures. In the essays collected in this volume, eleven well-known theologians explore this notion, especially in connection with the doctrine of creation, the relation between humans and nature, divine action, and our scientific worldview.

Polkinghorne, John, and Welker, Michael, eds. The End of the World and the Ends of God: Science and Theology on Eschatology. Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 2000.

The contributions in this interdisciplinary volume center around the question how our contemporary culture influences and is influenced by theological ideas about the end of the world. The essays are clustered in four sections as reflections on eschatological themes from the natural sciences, the cultural sciences and ethics, biblical studies, and from systematic theology. Some central themes are the relation between scientific cosmology and eschatology, the role of culture and the church as cultural space, the concept of time and the future, eschatological themes in the Bible, and the issue of life after death.

Polkinghorne, John. The Faith of a Physicist: Reflections of a Bottom-Up Thinker. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1996.

Structured according to the Nicene Creed, Polkinghorne's Gifford Lectures explores "to what extent we can use the search for motivated understanding, so congenial to the scientific mind, as a route to being able to make the substance of Christian orthodoxy our own." Polkinghorne discusses how science bears upon specific theological doctrines like creation, christology, pneumatology, and eschatology.

Qadir, C.A. Philosophy and Science in the Islamic World. New York: Croom Helm, 1988.

Historically speaking, the Western civilization owes much to Islamic influences, due to the translations of Greek and Arabic texts on science and philosophy. In this work, Qadir narrates the emergence, rise, decline, and the rediscovery of Islamic philosophy and science. He argues that the Islamic perspective emphasizes the wholeness and oneness of the cosmos and of our knowledge. In the final three chapters, the contemporary rediscovery of the Islamic potentials concerning philosophy, science, and technology in Muslim countries is described.

Samuelson, Norbert. Judaism and the Doctrine of Creation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Expounding historical, religious, and philosophical aspects of some Jewish perspectives on the doctrine of creation, Samuelson discusses the interrelations between the Hebrew scriptures, Greek and Jewish philosophy, and contemporary physics. Some reflections can be found on Rosenzweig's philosophy, the limits of human reason and religious faith, the character of religious belief, the relevance of scientific models to religious doctrine, and the nature of the relationship between God and the universe.

Ward, Keith. Religion & Creation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.

This book contains a thorough analysis and comparison by a Christian theologian of the doctrine of creation and the notion of God in four scriptural traditions, and its interpretation by eminent twentieth-century theologians within those traditions. Ward concludes that there are many fruitful comparisons to be made regarding the properties which are ascribed to God in the different traditions. In the final part of the book, Ward makes explicit "a specifically Christian doctrine of God as Trinity, in the light of the new perspective on the universe which modern cosmology provides."

11. SCIENCE & DIVINE ACTION

Polkinghorne, John. Science and Providence: God's Interaction with the World. Boston: Shambala, 1989.

In this book, Polkinghorne addresses issues surrounding the question how we can reconcile the scientific worldview with the Christian's belief in a personal and caring God. Through exploring the relation between embodiment and action, Polkinghorne arrives at a model of divine action wherein God is seen to interact with the world by top-down action. The reference to chaos theory, which he explored further in many subsequent writings, has become the hallmark of Polkinghorne's theology of divine action.

Morris, Thomas V., ed. Divine and Human Action: Essays in the Metaphysics of Theism. Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1988.

The twelve diverse essays collected in this volume all revolve around the theological, philosophical, and metaphysical issues surrounding the relation and interaction of God with the created world and its inhabitants. These issues include divine causality and the natural world, providence, creaturely freedom and the role of chance, and the nature and properties of God. As the title indicates, the essays particularly address the traditional theist idea of God.

Tracy, Thomas F., ed. The God Who Acts: Philosophical and Theological Explorations. University Park, Pa: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.

This collection of essays of renowned philosophers and theologians deals explicitly with the moral implications and difficulties surrounding divine action. The essays focus on two themes. First particular divine action is considered, especially related to the problem of evil. Secondly, the attention turns to universal divine action in connection with creation and human freedom.

Ward, Keith. Divine Action. London: Collins, 1990.

Ward tackles in clear arguments many difficult issues connected with the concept of divine action, such as the order of the universe, miracles, the problem of evil, and prayer. He argues that science has declared the death of the closed universe. Our universe turns out to be emergent and open, and God is personally and continually active in it, though his influence is undetectable for creatures. The life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth constitutes "a definite embodiment of God's own activity for human redemption, which is the matrix for interpreting the Divine activity everywhere."

Wiles, Maurice. God's Action in the World: The Bampton Lectures for 1986. London: SCM Press, 1986.

In this work the famous though controversial 'single act' theory of divine action is expounded. Wiles shows how evil and suffering pose insurmountable problems for any interventionist view of divine action. This leads him to propose the idea that "the whole process of bringing into being of the world, which is still going on, needs to be seen as one action of God." Arguing from this model he deals with problems of evil, providence and Christology.

12. SCIENCE, RELIGION, & ETHICS

Barbour, Ian G. Ethics in an Age of Technology: The Gifford Lectures, 1989-91, Vol. 2. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1992.

In this second volume of Gifford Lectures, Barbour addresses the ethical issues related to our use of applied science and technology. The book is structured in three parts. The first part deals with the different views on technology, human, and environmental values. In the second part, three 'critical' technologies, agriculture, energy, and computers are explored. In the third part, reflecting on the future use and development of technology, Barbour makes clear how the values discussed in the former two parts are relevant for technological policy decisions.

Murphy, Nancey, and Ellis, George F.R. On the Moral Nature of the Universe: Theology, Cosmology, and Ethics. Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 1996.

How do science, theology, and ethics relate to each other? And does our understanding of the universe have any ethical implications? These are the questions that are explored in this study by a theologian and a cosmologist. Taking the integrity of the natural order as a starting point, the authors argue that God's action entails refusal to violate that order. This 'kenotic' view of God's action then is taken as having moral implications for a self-renunciatory ethic, "according to which one must renounce self-interest for the sake of the other, no matter what the cost to oneself."

Rolston, Holmes, III. Environmental Ethics: Duties to and Values in the Natural World. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988.

Rolston defends the view that humans have to respond to and are responsible for nature. As such, he develops a theory of naturalist environmental ethics based on duties and values, which also seeks to optimize human fitness on earth and to do this in a moral manner. This theory is then applied to social, public, and business policy making. Many examples help to elucidate Rolston's points.

TAEDE A. SMEDES