Jul 25, 2008
Perhaps even more than the short passages, long passages (and the questions that follow them) need to be processed in an efficient, time-saving way. It’s easy to get bogged down in a lengthy prose passage when you’re under the gun. Apply the steps listed previously to the passage that follows. In addition, review the question types illustrated earlier and use your familiarity with them to help you answer the questions.
The following article was written by a physical chemist and recounts the conflict between volcanic matter in the atmosphere and airplane windows. It was published in a scientific periodical in 1989.
(Reprinted by permission of American Heritage Magazine, a division of Forbes Inc., © Forbes Inc., 1989.)
| 1 | Several years ago the airlines discovered a new kind of problem—a |
| window problem. The acrylic windows on some of their 747s were getting | |
| hazy and dirty-looking. Suspicious travelers thought the airlines might | |
| have stopped cleaning them, but the windows were not dirty; they were | |
| 5 | inexplicably deteriorating within as little as 390 hours of flight time, even |
| though they were supposed to last for five to ten years. Boeing looked into | |
| it. | |
| At first the company thought the culprit might be one well known in | |
| modern technology, the component supplier who changes materials with- | |
| 10 | out telling the customer. Boeing quickly learned this was not the case, so |
| there followed an extensive investigation that eventually brought in the | |
| Air Transport Association, geologists, and specialists in upper-atmosphere | |
| chemistry, and the explanation turned out to be not nearly so mundane. | |
| Indeed, it began to look like a grand reenactment of an ancient Aztec | |
| 15 | myth: the struggle between the eagle and the serpent, which is depicted on |
| the Mexican flag. | |
| The serpent in this case is an angry Mexican volcano, El Chichon. | |
| Like its reptilian counterpart, it knows how to spit venom at the eyes of its | |
| adversary. In March and April of 1982 the volcano, in an unusual eruption | |
| 20 | pattern, ejected millions of tons of sulfur-rich material directly into the |
| stratosphere. In less than a year, a stratospheric cloud had blanketed the | |
| entire Northern Hemisphere. Soon the photochemistry of the upper atmo- | |
| sphere converted much of the sulfur into tiny droplets of concentrated | |
| sulfuric acid. | |
| 25 | The eagle in the story is the 747, poking occasionally into the lower |
| part of the stratosphere in hundreds of passenger flights daily. Its two | |
| hundred windows are made from an acrylic polymer, which makes beauti- | |
| fully clear, strong windows but was never intended to withstand attack by | |
| strong acids. | |
| 30 | The stratosphere is very different from our familiar troposphere envi- |
| ronment. Down here the air is humid, with a lot of vertical convection | |
| to carry things up and down; the stratosphere is bone-dry, home to the | |
| continent-striding jet stream, with unceasing horizontal winds at an average | |
| of 120 miles per hour. A mist of acid droplets accumulated gradually near the | |
| 35 | lower edge of the stratosphere, settling there at a thickness of about a mile |
| a year, was able to wait for planes to come along. | |
| As for sulfuric acid, most people know only the relatively benign liq- | |
| uid in a car battery: 80 percent water and 20 percent acid. The strato | |
| sphere dehydrated the sulfuric acid into a persistent, corrosive mist 75 | |
| 40 | percent pure acid, an extremely aggressive liquid. Every time the 747 |
| poked into the stratosphere—on almost every long flight—acid droplets | |
| struck the windows and began to react with their outer surface, causing it | |
| to swell. This built up stresses between the softened outer layer and the | |
| underlying material. Finally, parallel hairline cracks developed, creating | |
| 45 | the hazy appearance. The hazing was sped up by the mechanical stresses |
| always present in the windows of a pressurized cabin. | |
| The airlines suffered through more than a year of window replace- | |
| ments before the acid cloud finally dissipated. Ultimately the drops | |
| reached the lower edge of the stratosphere, were carried away into the | |
| 50 | lower atmosphere, and finally came down in the rain. In the meantime, |
| more resistant window materials and coatings were developed. (As for the | |
| man-made sulfur dioxide that causes acid rain, it never gets concentrated | |
| enough to attack the window material. El Chichon was unusual in its | |
| ejection of sulfur directly into the stratosphere, and the 747 is unusual in | |
| 55 | its frequent entrance into the stratosphere.) |
| As for the designers of those windows, it is hard to avoid the conclu- | |
| sion that a perfectly adequate engineering design was defeated by bad | |
| luck. After all, this was the only time since the invention of the airplane that | |
| there were acid droplets of this concentration in the upper atmosphere. | |
| 60 | But reliability engineers, an eminently rational breed, are very uncomfort- |
| able when asked to talk about luck. In principle it should be possible to | |
| anticipate events, and the failure to do so somehow seems like a profes- | |
| sional failure. The cosmos of the engineer has no room for poltergeists, | |
| demons, or other mystic elements. But might it accommodate the inexo- | |
| 65 | rable scenario of an ancient Aztec myth? |
1. Initially the hazy windows were thought by the company to be a result of
(A) small particles of volcanic glass abrading their surfaces.
(B) substandard window material substituted by the parts supplier.
(C) ineffectual cleaning products used by the maintenance crew.
(D) build-up of the man-made sulfur dioxide that also causes acid rain.
(E) humidity.
2. When first seeking a reason for the abraded windows, both the passengers and Boeing management exhibited attitudes of
(A) disbelief.
(B) optimism.
(C) cynicism.
(D) pacifism.
(E) disregard.
3. In line 13, “mundane” means
(A) simple.
(B) complicated.
(C) far-reaching.
(D) ordinary.
(E) important.
4. In what ways is El Chichon like the serpent on the Mexican flag, knowing how to “spit venom at the eyes of its adversary” (lines 18–19)?
(A) It seeks to poison its adversary with its bite.
(B) It carefully plans its attack on an awaited intruder.
(C) It ejects tons of destructive sulfuric acid to damage jet windows.
(D) It angrily blankets the Northern Hemisphere with sulfuric acid.
(E) It protects itself with the acid rain it produces.
5. The term “photochemistry” in line 22 refers to a chemical change caused by
(A) the proximity of the sun.
(B) the drop in temperature at stratospheric altitudes.
(C) the jet stream’s “unceasing horizontal winds.”
(D) the vertical convection of the troposphere.
(E) the amount of sulfur present in the atmosphere.
6. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere
(A) is extremely humid because it is home to the jet stream.
(B) contains primarily vertical convections to cause air particles to rise and fall rapidly.
(C) is approximately one mile thick.
(D) contains powerful horizontal winds resulting in an excessively dry atmosphere.
(E) contains very little wind activity.
7. In line 40, “aggressive” means
(A) exasperating.
(B) enterprising.
(C) prone to attack.
(D) assertive.
(E) surprising.
8. As the eagle triumphed over the serpent in the Mexican flag,
(A) El Chichon triumphed over the plane as the 747s had to change their flight altitudes.
(B) The newly designed window material deflected the damaging acid droplets.
(C) the 747 was able to fly unchallenged by acid droplets a year later as they drifted away to the lower atmosphere.
(D) the reliability engineers are now prepared for any run of “bad luck” that may approach their aircraft.
(E) the component supplier of the windows changed materials without telling the customers.
9. The reliability engineers are typified as people who
(A) are uncomfortable considering natural disasters.
(B) believe that all events are predictable through scientific methodology.
(C) accept luck as an inevitable and unpredictable part of life.
(D) easily accept their failure to predict and protect against nature’s surprises.
(E) are extremely irrational and are comfortable speaking about luck.
The questions following the passage that you just read are typical of those in the Critical Reading section. After carefully reading the passage, you can begin to answer these questions. Let’s look again at the questions.
1. Initially the hazy windows were thought by the company to be a result of
(A) small particles of volcanic glass abrading their surfaces.
(B) substandard window material substituted by the parts supplier.
(C) ineffectual cleaning products used by the maintenance crew.
(D) a build-up of the man-made sulfur dioxide that also causes acid rain.
(E) the humidity.
As you read the question stem, blocking the answer choices, you’ll note the key term “result,” which should alert you to the question category synthesis/analysis. Argument structure is the focus here. Ask yourself what part of the argument is being questioned: cause, problem, result, or solution. Careful reading of the stem and perhaps mental rewording to “_____ caused hazy windows” reveals cause is the issue. Once you’re clear on the stem, proceed to the choices.
The word “initially” clues you in to the fact that the correct answer should be the first cause considered. Answer choice (B) is the correct response, as “substandard window material” was the company’s first (initial) culprit, as explained in the first sentence of the second paragraph. They had no hint of (A) a volcanic eruption’s ability to cause such damage. In addition, they were not concerned, as were the passengers, that (C) the windows were not properly cleaned. Answer (D) is not correct because scientists had yet to consider testing the atmosphere. Along the same lines, answer choice (E) is incorrect.
2. When first seeking a reason for the abraded windows, both the passengers and Boeing management exhibited attitudes of
(A) disbelief. (D) pacifism.
(B) optimism. (E) disregard.
(C) cynicism.
As you read the stem before viewing the choices, you’ll know you’re being asked to judge or evaluate the tone of a passage. The tone is not stated outright, so you’ll need to rely on your perception as you re-read that section, if necessary. Remember, questions follow the order of the passage, so you know to look after the initial company reaction to the windows, but not far after, as many more questions are to follow. Now, formulate your own word for the attitude of the passengers and employees. “Skepticism” or “criticism” work well. If you can’t come up with a term, at least note if the tone is negative or positive. In this case, negative is clearly indicated as the passengers are distrustful of the maintenance crew and the company mistrusts the window supplier. Proceed to each choice, seeking the closest match to your term and/or eliminating words with positive connotations.
Choice (C) is correct because “cynicism” best describes the skepticism and distrust with which the passengers view the cleaning company and the parts suppliers. Choice (A) is not correct because both Boeing and the passengers believed the windows were hazy, they just didn’t know why. Choice (B) is not correct because people were somewhat agitated that the windows were hazy—certainly not “optimistic.” Choice (D), “pacifism,” has a rather positive connotation, which the tone of the section does not. Choice (E) is incorrect because the people involved took notice of the situation and did not disregard it. In addition to the ability to discern tone, of course, your vocabulary knowledge is being tested. “Cynicism,” should you be unsure of the term, can be viewed in its root, “cynic,” which may trigger you to remember that it is negative, and therefore, appropriate in tone.
3. In line 13, “mundane” means
(A) simple.
(B) complicated.
(C) far-reaching.
(D) ordinary.
(E) important.
This question obviously tests vocabulary-in-context. Your strategy here should be to quickly view line 13 to confirm usage, block answer choices while devising your own synonym for “mundane,” perhaps “common,” and then viewing each choice separately, looking for the closest match. Although you might not be familiar with “mundane,” the choices are all relatively simple terms. Look for contextual clues in the passage if you can’t define the term outright. Whereas the “component supplies” explanation is “mundane,” the Aztec myth is not. Perhaps you could then look for an opposite of mythical; “real” or “down-to-earth” comes to mind.
Choice (D), “ordinary,” fits best as it is clearly the opposite of the extraordinary Aztec myth of the serpent and the eagle, which is not as common as a supplier switching materials. Choice (A), “simple,” works contextually but not as an accurate synonym for the word “mundane”; it does not deal with “mundane’s” “down-to-earth” definition. Choice (B), “complicated,” is inaccurate because the parts switch is anything but complicated. Choice (C), “far-reaching,” is not better because it would apply to the myth rather than the common, everyday action of switching parts. Choice (E), “important,” does not work either because the explanation was an integral part of solving the problem. If you eliminated (B), (C), and (E) because of contextual inappropriateness, you would be left with “ordinary” and “simple.” A quick rereading of the section, then, should clarify the better choice. But, if the rereading did not clarify the better choice, your strategy would be to choose one answer, place a small mark in the booklet, and proceed to the next question. If time is left at the end of the test, you could then review your answer choice.
4. In what ways is El Chichon like the serpent on the Mexican flag, knowing how to “spit venom at the eyes of its adversary” (lines 18–19)?
(A) It seeks to poison its adversary with its bite.
(B) It carefully plans its attack on an awaited intruder.
(C) It ejects tons of destructive sulfuric acid to damage jet windows.
(D) It angrily blankets the Northern Hemisphere with sulfuric acid.
(E) It protects itself with the acid rain it produces.
As you view the question, note the word “like” indicates a comparison is being made. The quoted simile forms the comparative basis of the question, and you must interpret that phrase with respect to the actual process. You must carefully seek to duplicate the tenor of the terms, coming close to the spitting action in which a harmful substance is expelled in the direction of an object similar to the eyes of an opponent. Look for key words when comparing images. “Spit,” “venom,” “eyes,” and “adversary” are these keys.
In choice (C), the verb that is most similar to the serpent’s “spitting” venom is the sulfuric acid “ejected” from the Mexican volcano, El Chichon. Also, the jet windows most closely resemble the “eyes of the adversary” that are struck by El Chichon. Being a volcano, El Chichon is certainly incapable of injecting poison into an adversary, as in choice (A), or planning an attack on an intruder, as in choice (B). In choice (D), although the volcano does indeed “blanket the Northern Hemisphere" with sulfuric acid, this image does not coincide with the “spitting” image of the serpent. Finally, in choice (E), although a volcano can indirectly cause acid rain, it cannot produce acid rain on its own and then spew it out into the atmosphere.
5. The term “photochemistry” in line 22 refers to a chemical change caused by
(A) the proximity of the sun.
(B) the drop in temperature at stratospheric altitudes.
(C) the jet stream’s “unceasing horizontal winds.”
(D) the vertical convection of the troposphere.
(E) the amount of sulfur present in the atmosphere.
Even if you are unfamiliar with the term “photochemistry,” you probably know its root or its prefix. Clearly, this question fits in the vocabulary-in-context mode. Your first step may be a quick reference to line 22. If you don’t know the term, context may provide you a clue. The conversion of sulfur-rich upper atmosphere into droplets may help. If context does not yield information, look at the term “photochemistry” itself. “Photo” has to do with light or sun, as in photosynthesis. Chemistry deals with substance composition and change. Knowing these two parts can take you a long way toward a correct answer.
Answer choice (A) is the correct response, as the light of the sun closely compares with the prefix “photo.” Although choice (B), “the drop in temperature,” might lead you to associate the droplet formation with condensation, light is not a factor here, nor is it in choice (C), “the jet stream’s winds”; choice (D), “the vertical convection”; or choice (E), “the amount of sulfur present.”
6. Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere
(A) is extremely humid because it is home to the jet stream.
(B) contains primarily vertical convections to cause air particles to rise and fall rapidly.
(C) is approximately one mile thick.
(D) contains powerful horizontal winds resulting in an excessively dry atmosphere.
(E) contains very little wind activity.
“Unlike” should immediately alert you to a synthesis/analysis question asking you to contrast specific parts of the text. Your margin notes should take you right to the section contrasting the atmospheres. Quickly scan it before considering the answers. Usually you won’t remember this broad type of comparison from your first passage reading. Don’t spend much time, though, on the scan before beginning to answer because time is still a factor.
This question is tricky because all the answer choices contain key elements/phrases in the passage, but again, a quick, careful scan will yield results. Answer (D) proves best because the “horizontal winds” dry the air of the stratosphere. Choices (A), (B), and (E) are all characteristic of the troposphere. Choice (C) is incorrect because the acid droplets accumulate at the rate of one mile per year within the much larger stratosphere. As you answer such questions, remember to eliminate incorrect choices as you go; don’t be misled by what seems familiar yet isn’t accurate—read all the answer choices.
7. In line 40, “aggressive” means
(A) exasperating.
(B) enterprising.
(C) prone to attack.
(D) assertive.
(E) surprising.
Another vocabulary-in-context surfaces here; but this time, the word is probably familiar to you. Again, before forming a synonym, quickly refer to the line number, aware that perhaps a secondary meaning is appropriate as the term already is a familiar one. Upon reading the line, you’ll note “persistent” and “corrosive,” both strong terms, the latter being quite negative in its destruction. Now, form an appropriate synonym for aggressive, one that has a negative connotation. “Hostile” might come to mind. You are ready at this point to view all choices for a match.
Using your vocabulary knowledge, you can answer this question. “Hostile” most closely resembles choice (C), “prone to attack,” and is therefore the correct response. Choice (A), “exasperating,” or irritating, is too weak a term, whereas choices (B), “enterprising,” and (D), “assertive,” are too positive. Choice (E), “surprising,” is not a synonym for “aggressive.”
8. As the eagle triumphed over the serpent in the Mexican flag,
(A) El Chichon triumphed over the plane as the 747s had to change their flight altitudes.
(B) the newly designed window material deflected the damaging acid droplets.
(C) the 747 was able to fly unchallenged by acid droplets a year later as they drifted away to the lower atmosphere.
(D) the reliability engineers are now prepared for any run of “bad luck” that may approach their aircraft.
(E) the component supplier of the windows changed materials without telling the customer.
This question asks you to compare the eagle’s triumph over the serpent to another part of the text. “As” often signals comparative relationships, so you are forewarned of the synthesis/analysis question. You are also dealing again with a simile, so, of course, the question can also be categorized as interpretation. The eagle-serpent issue is a major theme in the text. You are being asked, as you will soon discover in the answer choices, what this general theme is. Look at the stem keys: eagle, triumphed, and serpent. Ask yourself to what each corresponds. You’ll arrive at the eagle and the 747, some sort of victory, and the volcano or its sulfur. Now that you’ve formed that corresponding image in your own mind, you’re ready to view the choices.
Choice (C) is the correct choice because we know the statement “the 747 was able to fly unchallenged . . . ” to be true. Not only do the remaining choices fail to reflect the eagle-triumphsover- serpent image but also choice (A) is inaccurate because the 747 did not “change its flight altitudes.” In choice (B), the windows did not deflect “the damaging acid droplets.” Furthermore, in choice (D), “the reliability engineers” cannot be correct because they cannot possibly predict the future and, therefore, cannot anticipate what could go wrong in the future. Finally, we know that in (E), the window materials were never changed.
9. The reliability engineers are typified as people who
(A) are uncomfortable considering natural disasters.
(B) believe that all events are predictable through scientific methodology.
(C) accept luck as an inevitable and unpredictable part of life.
(D) easily accept their failure to predict and protect against nature’s surprises.
(E) are extremely irrational and are comfortable speaking about luck.
When the question involves such terms as type, kind, example, or typified, be aware of possible synthesis/analysis or interpretation issues. Here the question deals with implications: what the author means but doesn’t state outright. Types can also lead you to situations that ask you to make an unstated generalization based on specifically stated details. In fact, this question could even be categorized as evaluation because specific detail to generalization is a type of argument/ essay structure. In any case, before viewing the answer choices, ask yourself what general traits the reliability engineers portray. You may need to check back in the text for typical characteristics. You’ll find the engineers to be rational unbelievers in luck. These key characteristics will help you to make a step toward a correct answer.
Choice (B) is the correct answer because the passage specifically states that the reliability engineers “are very uncomfortable when asked to talk about luck” and believe “it should be possible to anticipate events” scientifically. The engineers might be uncomfortable, as in choice (A), but this is not a main concern in the passage. Choice (C) is obviously incorrect, because the engineers do not believe in luck at all, and choice (D) is not correct because “professional failure” is certainly unacceptable to these scientists. There is no indication in the passage that (E) the scientists are “irrational and are comfortable speaking about luck.”
The following drill should be used to test what you have just learned. Read the passages and answer the questions. If you are unsure of an answer, refer back to the review for help.
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