• A changed society
• The president's plan
• Andrew Johnson: Advocate for White Workers
• The unexpected results of Johnson's plan
• Oliver Otis Howard: Admired by African Americans
• Carl Schurz: An Immigrant Devoted to Democracy
• Opposition to Johnson's program grows
• For More Information

For more than four million African Americans living in the Southern United States, the end of the Civil War (1861–65) brought the freedom they had hoped for during all the long years of slavery. Ever since the arrival of the...