Home > The People's Chronology > 9Th Century A.D.

801 A.D.–825 A.D.

802 A.D.: political events

Beorhric of Wessex dies after drinking a chalice of poison intended by his wife, Eadburgh, for one of the king's favorites. Left with no protection in court, Eadburgh seizes whatever gold and jewelry she can and flees to the court of Charlemagne, who accepts a portion of her wealth and makes her abbess of a powerful convent. She will break her vow of chastity, be driven from the convent, and die poverty-stricken in Italy.

Scandinavian invaders in this century will overrun France, sack and burn Aachen and Cologne, and take London, Cádiz, and Pisa.

The Byzantine emperor Irene is deposed after a 5-year reign of prosperity during which she has blinded her own son. The patricians upon whom she has lavished honors and favors exile her to Lesbos, where she is obliged to support herself by spinning, and replace her with the minister of finance, who will reign until 811 as Nicephorus I, restoring Iconoclasm. The fall of Irene destroys Charlemagne's fantasy of uniting the eastern and western empires.

Cambodia's Khmer Empire has its beginnings as the rebel prince Jayavarman II, now 32, asserts independence from the kingdom of Shrivajaya and is reconsecrated as a world ruler (chakravartin) or god-king (devaraja) under Hindu rites (see 790 A.D.). The new ruler returned from exile (or captivity) about 2 years ago but has refused to be a puppet for the Shrivajayan kingdom and establishes a capital on the lower Mekong River at Indrapura. He will establish other capitals in his 48-year reign, which inaugurates the Angkor period of Cambodian history that will continue until 1431 (the word ang means prince or princess in the Khmer language, and a site close to Angkor will be the nation's seat of government for 600 years).

802 A.D.: human rights, social justice

Vikings in this century will take slaves from the semi-barbaric kingdoms of eastern and central Europe, and even from Europe's western edges (the word comes from the same root as Slav); they will sell men, women, and children in the markets of Kiev and to rich Muslims in the eastern Mediterranean.

Europe's peasantry is, in effect, enslaved to large landowners, who defend them in frequent wars, feed them in times of famine from stores held in reserve against such times, but generally exploit them.

802 A.D.: agriculture

Agronomic science is now in a decline, despite the growing use of the three-field system (see 780 A.D.). Agriculture has been unprofitable since the 4th century, and although the Scandinavians will make improvements, Europe will experience famines from now to the 12th century.

802 A.D.: food availability

Famines will be less severe in this century than they have been in the past and will be in future, since almost everybody now lives on the land. Europe's towns have practically disappeared, and since farm surpluses have no market, the farmers raise only enough for their own needs plus small quantities for barter.

802 A.D.: food and drink

Chinese aristocrats eat from translucent porcelain plates that Europe will not be able to duplicate for more than 900 years (see 621 A.D.;1708 A.D.).

803 A.D.: political events

The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid has his erstwhile friend Jafar the Barmakid executed January 29, possibly because he has fathered a son by the caliph's sister Abbasah (it is said that Harun had Jafar secretly married to Abbasah on condition that they marriage not be consummated; it is also said that he and Jafar had had a homosexual relationship; but it may simply be that Harun has coveted the wealth of the Barmakids, who have for more than 16 years borne the chief responsibility of administering the empire and who have provided the wherewithal for Harun's luxurious life; surviving members of the Barmakid family are imprisoned and their property is confiscated).

The former Byzantine emperor Irene dies on the island of Lesbos August 9 at age 51 (approximate).

803 A.D.: environment

Fierce storms lash the west coast of Ireland March 17, killing close to 1,000.

805 A.D.: political events

China's ninth Tang dynasty emperor De Zong (Te Tsung) dies at age 63 (approximate) after a 25-year reign in which militarists have controlled the provinces, often ignoring imperial decrees. The emperor has fancied himself a poet, sending his decrees on occasion in verse and confiding only in his court eunuchs, who have come to control the government in the absence of a strong leader.

805 A.D.: medicine

Tea is introduced to Japan as a medicine (see China, 750 A.D.). The Buddhist bonze (priest) Saicho, 38, has spent 3 years visiting Chinese Buddhist temples on orders from the emperor and he returns with tea (see food, 1191).

805 A.D.: literature

The Anglo-Latin poet, educator, and cleric Alcuin of Jorvik (York) dies at Tours, France, May 19 at age 71 (approximate), having headed Charlemagne's Palatine school at Aachen, introduced Anglo-Saxon traditions of humanism into Western Europe, and made significant reforms in the Roman Catholic liturgy.

806 A.D.: political events

The Bagratid dynasty that will rule Armenia throughout this century is founded by Ashot Bagratuni the Carnivorous, who is appointed prince by the Arab authorities that have controlled the country since 653 (see 771 A.D.). The Mamikonian family has long since declined, the Bagratids have emerged as one of the country's two most powerful noble families, and it will keep Armenia independent of the Byzantine emperors and the Abbasid caliphs (see 855 A.D.).

The Japanese emperor Kanmu dies at age 69 after a 24-year reign that has seen Korean culture and technology introduced into Japan. Kanmu is succeeded by his manic-depressive son Heizei, 32, who becomes hysterical at news of his father's death but will reign until 809.

Norsemen ravage the island of Iona for the third time and sack the monastery founded there in 563.

806 A.D.: food availability

Famine strikes Japan.

807 A.D.: political events

An Arab fleet ravages Rhodes. Residents of the island in the eastern Mediterranean are unable to fend off their invaders.

808 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Nicephorus invades Arab territory, retaliating for incursions made by the Arabs into his realm.

808 A.D.: exploration, colonization

Fez is founded in Morocco by the Abbasid king Idris. The tent colony will become the cultural center of North Africa.

809 A.D.: political events

The Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid dies at Tus March 24 at age 46 on an expedition to put down an uprising in Khurasan, one of many that have plagued his 23-year reign. The caliph will be glorified in Arabic legend and in the Arabian Nights, which will be published in English in 1888. One of his sons will reign until 813 as al-Amin, but his son Mamun is accepted as caliph in Persia and begins a revolt against al-Amin.

The Japanese emperor Heizei abdicates after a 3-year reign. His 23-year-old brother Saga succeeds to the imperial throne and will reign until 823.

809 A.D.: food availability

Famine sweeps the empire of Charlemagne.

811 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Nicephorus invades Bulgaria, whose king Krum took Sofia in 809. He forces Krum to ask for terms, but the Bulgarians surprise the Byzantines and kill the emperor along with much of his army. Nicephorus has reformed Constantinople's finances in his 9-year reign, and his son Staurakios succeeds him for a few months. Staurakios is succeeded in turn by his brother-in-law, who will reign incompetently until 813 as Michael I Rhangabe.

812 A.D.: agriculture

Charlemagne orders that anise, coriander, fennel, flax, fenugreek, sage, and other plants be planted on German imperial farms.

813 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Michael I Rhangabe leads an army against the Bulgars, refuses the peace terms that they offer, and is deserted by his Asian troops at the Battle of Versinikia near Adrianople. The army deposes Michael in July and replaces him with an Armenian, who will reign until 820 as Leo V.

The Abbasid caliph al-Amin surrenders Baghdad after his brother's general Tahir has granted peace terms, but he is treacherously murdered September 25. His brother will reign until 833 as al-Mamun (Mamun the Great), encouraging Islamic science and literature.

814 A.D.: political events

Charlemagne dies of pleurisy at Aix-la-Chapelle (or Aachen) January 28 at age 71 after 13 years as the first Holy Roman Emperor. He is embalmed and buried sitting upright on a gold-and-ivory throne imported from Constantinople with a gold scepter, shield, and sword. His son Lothair, 36, whose twin brother died in infancy, will become Holy Roman Emperor and reign until 840 as Louis I (the Pious), a name derived from Clovis, to begin the Carolingian dynasty (see 816 A.D.).

Japan's Minamoto (Genji) family has its beginnings as 32 of Emperor Saga's 50 children are made either commoners or Buddhist priests to reduce the imperial budget. The commoners will be called "Genji."

815 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Leo V deposes the Orthodox patriarch Nicephorus and convokes a synod that reimposes the decrees of the Iconoclast synod of 754 opposing the use of religious symbols (icons).

816 A.D.: religion

Pope Leo III dies at his native Rome June 12 after a 21-year reign and is succeeded by a Rome-born priest who will reign until early next year as Stephen IV (or V). He crowns Louis I (the Pious) Holy Roman Emperor at Reims October 18 and crowns Louis's consort, Ermengarde, empress.

817 A.D.: political events

Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Pious partitions the Carolingian empire for the first time. His son Lothair receives most of Burgundy plus the German and Gallic parts of Francia, his son Ludwig the German receives Bavaria and the marches to the east, and his son Pepin (Pippin) receives Aquitaine and parts of Septimiania and Burgundy (see Treaty of Verdun, 843 A.D.).

817 A.D.: religion

Pope Stephen IV (or V) dies at Rome January 24 soon after returning to the city from the coronation of Louis the Pious at Reims and is succeeded after a 6-month reign by a Rome-born abbot who is elected January 26 and will reign until 824 as Paschal I.

820 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Leo V is murdered in the mosque of Santa Sophia at Constantinople December 25 by supporters of his Phrygian general Michael the Armorian, who was condemned to die December 24 for having conspired treasonably against Leo. The general will reign until 829 as Michael II Balbus (the Stammerer).

823 A.D.: political events

Pope Paschal I crowns the Holy Roman Emperor Louis I's son Lothair as co-emperor, initiating the papal practice of handing the imperial sword over as a symbol of the temporal power that is supposed to suppress evil.

The Japanese emperor Saga abdicates at age 37 after a 14-year reign. He is succeeded by his 31-year-old brother, who will reign until 833 as the emperor Junna.

824 A.D.: religion

Pope Paschal I dies at his native Rome February 11 after a 7-year reign in which the Holy Roman Emperor Louis I (the Pious) has imposed drastic reforms on the Church, reorganizing monasteries and dioceses while trying to safeguard Christian order. The pope has secured the independence of the Roman see, freedom of election for Romans, and the bishop of Rome's sovereignty over Church states. Having built Rome's Church of Santa Prassede and the annexed chapel of San Zeno, Santa Maria in Donnica, and rebuilt Santa Cecilia, he is succeeded by a cleric who will reign until 827 as Eugene II.

825 A.D.: political events

Japan's Taira (Heike) family has its beginnings as children of the late emperor Kenmu are made commoners to reduce the imperial budget. Collateral relatives of the imperial family are given family name (the imperial family has none), and Prince Takamune, son of Prince Kuzuhara and a grandson of the 50th emperor, is given the name Taira (see 939 A.D.; Minamoto family, 814 A.D.; power struggle, 1156 A.D.).

825 A.D.: science

"Science of transposition and cancellation" ("Hisab al-jabr walmuqabalah") by Baghdad mathematician Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, 35, specifies the process for manipulating algebraic equations (date approximate). The word al-jabr will be the basis of the English word algebra, and al-Khwarizmi's name will be the basis of the word algorithm, meaning the rules for computing (see 975 A.D.). "When I considered what people generally wanted in calculating," he has written, "I found that it always is a number. I also observed that every number is composed of units, and that any number may be divided into units. Moreover, I found that every number which may be expressed from one to ten surpasses the preceding by one unit; afterwards the 10 is doubled or tripled just as before the units were: thus arise twenty, thirty, etc. until hundred; then the hundred is doubled and tripled in the same manner as the units and the tens, up to one thousand; . . . so forth to the utmost limit of numeration." He has used only words, no symbols (see zero, 1000 A.D.).

826 A.D.–850 A.D.

826 A.D.: political events

Saracen pirates from Spain conquer Crete; they will use the island as their base until 961.

827 A.D.: political events

Saracens from North Africa invade Sicily, beginning a 51-year war of conquest.

827 A.D.: religion

Pope Eugene II dies at Rome in late August after a 3-year reign and is succeeded in August by an archdeacon who reigns for about 40 days until October as Valentine but then dies and is succeeded by the cardinal priest of St. Mark's Basilica at Rome, who will reign until 844 as Gregory IV.

827 A.D.: agriculture

Spinach is introduced into Sicily by the Saracens, who found the plant originally in Persia.

829 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Michael II dies. The arrogant religious fanatic Theophilus succeeds to the throne and will reign until 842.

829 A.D.: religion

The German bishop Ansgar sends a mission to introduce Christianity to Sweden, where some people have already learned about the religion (and Islam) from travelers, slaves, and captured wives (see 1104 A.D.).

832 A.D.: religion

The Byzantine emperor Theophilus promulgates a new edict against idolators and persecutes violators with great cruelty.

833 A.D.: political events

The Abbasid caliph al-Mamun dies after a 20-year reign and is succeeded by his brother, who will reign until 842 as al-Mutasim, making Samarra his capital.

The Japanese emperor Junna abdicates at age 47. His nephew, 23, will reign until 850 as the emperor Ninmio.

China's Sweet Dew Incident sets back efforts by the Tang emperor Wenzong (Li Ang) to free the court from the influence of his palace eunuchs. They murder three of his chief ministers and several other officials and will even presume to assassinate an heir apparent of whom they disapprove, but Wenzong will continue to reign as titular head of state until his death in 840.

837 A.D.: political events

Naples beats off a Saracen attack (see 827 A.D.).

838 A.D.: political events

The Persian social and religious revolutionary Babak is cruelly executed January 4 by order of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim.

840 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Louis I (the Pious) dies June 20 at age 62 on an island in the Rhine after suppressing a revolt by his son Ludwig the German. His son Lothair, 45, succeeds as emperor and tries to seize all the domains of the late Charlemagne. His 17-year-old son Charles succeeds as king of France and joins with Ludwig the German in resisting Lothair (see 841 A.D.; Treaty of Verdun, 843 A.D.).

China's Tang emperor Wenzong (Li Ang) dies after a 13-year reign in which he has failed to break the power of his palace eunuchs. He is succeeded by Wuzong (Li Yan), who will reign until 846.

841 A.D.: political events

The Battle of Fontenoy ends in defeat for the Holy Roman Emperor Lothair, but while his brothers Charles and Louis triumph, Lothair will remain emperor until his death in 855.

841 A.D.: exploration, colonization

Dublin is founded by Ireland's Viking invaders on a site beside the bay that has been occupied since prehistoric times (Baile Atha Cliath) where four of the country's five great roads converge.

842 A.D.: political events

The Byzantine emperor Theophilus dies at Constantinople January 20 after a 14-year reign devoted chiefly to warring against the caliphs of Baghdad, who have taken the city of Amorium, cradle of the Phrygian dynasty; slaughtered its 30,000 inhabitants; and razed it to the ground. Theophilus is succeeded by his 3-year-old son, who will reign until 867 as Michael III (the Drunkard), with his mother, Theodora, serving as regent in his minority and neglecting his education. Michael will war with the Saracens, Bulgarians, and Russians.

The Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim dies at Samarra; his two sons and a grandson will reign until 866.

Alfonso II of Asturia dies March 20 at age 83 (approximate) after a 51-year reign in which he has beaten off numerous attacks by the armies of the emirate at Córdova and tried to ally himself with the late Charlemagne. Alfonso the Chaste (el Casto) has built a new capital at Oviedo.

843 A.D.: political events

The Treaty of Verdun partitions the Carolingian empire of the late Louis the Pious; executed in August, it gives Louis's son Lothair the title of emperor together with Italy, the valley of the Rhône, the valleys of the Saone and the Meuse, and the capital cities of Rome and Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles II (the Bald) receives the rest of Gaul; Ludwig the German receives lands to the east.

Viking raiders attack Nantes, kill the town's bishop along with many of the clergy, and pillage the city, murdering men, women, and children. They then plunder the lands of lower Aquitaine, reach an island north of the mouth of the Garonne near what later will be La Rochelle, bring materials from the mainland, and build houses to spend the winter (see 844 A.D.).

844 A.D.: political events

The Scottish king Kenneth MacAlpin of Dalriada makes himself king of the Picts and Scots (see 858 A.D.).

Viking raiders ascend the Garonne as far as Toulouse, pillaging the lands along the river (see 843 A.D.). Part of the marauding band moves south into Galicia, where some perish in a storm at sea while crossbowmen sent to resist them kill many of the others (see 845 A.D.).

844 A.D.: religion

Pope Gregory IV dies at Rome January 25 after a 16-year reign in which he has supported the emperor Lothair, granted the symbol of metropolitan jurisdiction to the Frankish missionary Ansgar in Scandinavia, and established the observance of All Saints Day (or All Souls Day, November 1). The city's nobility elects one of its cardinals to succeed Gregory against the will of the citizenry, which installs the deacon John as antipope in the Lateran Palace; the new pope Sergius II imprisons John in a monastery without waiting for sanction by the Holy Roman Emperor Lothair, who sends his 19-year-old son Louis with an army to punish the violation of the 20-year-old constitution, which affirmed imperial sovereignty over the papacy. Sergius II crowns Louis king of Italy at Rome June 15 and Louis soon marries a daughter of his uncle Ludwig the German. Sergius arranges an oath of allegiance to Lothair but rejects Roman fealty to Louis and appoints a legate to the Frankish kingdoms.

844 A.D.: food and drink

Charles II (the Bald), king of Lorraine, decrees that a traveling bishop may requisition at each halt in his journey 50 loaves of bread, 50 eggs, 10 chickens, and five suckling pigs.

845 A.D.: political events

Viking forces make their first assault against Paris, entering the Seine March 20 and sailing up the river in a fleet of 120 long ships under the command of their pagan and piratical leader Ragnar Lodbrok, who claims to be a direct descendant of the Norse god Odin and delights in attacking Christian cities on holy feast days when many soldiers will be in church (see 844 A.D.). Numbering about 5,000, Lodbrok's men terrorize the countryside, showing no mercy to the inhabitants as they burn villages, massacre and rape the inhabitants, plunder estates and monasteries, and take survivors into slavery. They capture Paris March 28; Charles II (the Bald), king of Lorraine, gives them at least 7,000 livres (pounds of silver bullion) to spare the city; but although he hopes to prevent their return the tribute merely encourages further attacks up the Seine, Loire, and other navigable rivers that the invaders can ascend in their shallow-draft ships (see 865 A.D.).

The Norse king Euric sails up the Elbe to attack Ludwig the German, whose Saxon forces manage to defeat him; then Euric returns down the Seine and pillages regions along the coast (see 846 A.D.).

846 A.D.: political events

Danish pirates land in Frisia, where they defeat the populace and extort tribute. They will remain masters of almost the entire province.

Muslim forces plunder the outlying areas of Rome August 23, enter the city, and pillage the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul before they are driven out. Critics of Pope Sergius II complain that he had advance warning of the raid and failed to take action.

China's Tang dynasty emperor Wuzong (Li Yan) dies after a 6-year-reign and is succeeded by Xuanzong (Li Chen), who will reign until 859. His successors will reign until 904, and a later Tang dynasty from 908 to 926.

847 A.D.: political events

Norse invaders appear in a part of Gaul inhabited largely by Britons, whose chief Noménoé fails to withstand them in battle but succeeds in buying them off with gifts and persuading them to leave.

847 A.D.: religion

Pope Sergius II dies of gout January 27 while trying to mediate a dispute between the patriarchs of Aquileia and Grado. The testy pontiff is succeeded after a 3-year reign by Leo IV, who will reign until 855 and build the Leonine Wall to protect St. Peter's at Rome from Muslim invaders.

849 A.D.: political events

Charles II (the Bald), king of Lorraine, receives Toulouse in southern France from a vassal of Aquitaine's Pepin II and confirms Fredelon as count of Toulouse. Fredelon will live until 852, having begun a dynasty that will continue for centuries. His brother will rule as Raymond I and add Limousin to the territory (but see Vikings, 861 A.D.).

850 A.D.: political events

The Norseman Rurik makes himself ruler of Kiev, which has grown to be a major center of trade in Viking plunder and slaves. The Varangian (Norse) house of Rurik will extend its rule far beyond the Ukraine and be an important Russian royal family until the end of the 16th century (see Oleg, 907 A.D.).

Cambodia's Jayavarman II dies at Hariharalaya at age 80 (approximate) after a 48-year reign that has established the Khmer Empire which will rule until 1431. He is succeeded by his son, who will reign until 877 as Jayavarman III.

The Japanese emperor Ninmio dies at age 40, a struggle over the succession ensues, and Ninmio is then succeeded by his son, 23, who will reign until 858 as Montoku.

850 A.D.: transportation

Arab scientists perfect the astrolabe as a navigational aid. The compact instrument facilitates observation of the celestial bodies.

850 A.D.: science

Mathematician and astronomer Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi dies at his native Baghdad at age 70 (age and year approximate), having pioneered the study of algebra (and introduced the root of the English word) in his treatise Hisab al-jabr walmuquabala. He has also produced a major work on geography, basing it on the writings of Ptolemy to give the latitudes and longitudes of 2,402 cities, mountains, rivers, seas, islands, and other locations.

850 A.D.: medicine

Baghdad boasts the world's most advanced hospitals. Persia has had hospitals (bimaristans) since the 6th century, but Baghdad's have special wards for internal diseases, contagious diseases, and psychiatric cases. Arab armies move with field hospitals.

850 A.D.: education

Salerno University has its beginnings.

850 A.D.: communications, media

Yiddish has its beginnings as groups of Jews settle in some of the German states and develop their own language, mixing German, Hebrew, and other languages.

850 A.D.: food and drink

Coffee is discovered (according to legend) by the Arab goatherd Kaidi in east Africa, who notices that his goats become frisky after chewing the berries from certain wild bushes (year approximate; see 1453 A.D.).

851 A.D.–875 A.D.

851 A.D.: political events

Viking forces enter the Thames estuary and sack Canterbury Cathedral before they are defeated at Ockley by Ethelwulf, king of the Kentishmen and West Saxons.

851 A.D.: environment

Rome has a violent earthquake that damages Pope Leo's 4-year-old Leonine Wall and further destroys the Colosseum (see 508 A.D.).

852 A.D.: political events

The Bulgarian khan Malamir dies after a 23-year reign in which the Bulgarians have gradually expanded into upper Macedonia and Serbia. He is succeeded by his son, who will reign as Boris I until 889 (see 864 A.D.).

The Umayyad emir of Córdova Abd-ar-Rahman II dies after a 30-year reign of prosperity in which he has made additions to the Great Mosque at Córdova, completed many public works, and provided support to poets, musicians, and clergymen; he is succeeded by Mohammad I, who will put down a Christian uprising and reign until 886.

852 A.D.: energy

Coal is mentioned for the first time in English chronicles, although the fossil fuel has been used to some extent for centuries to supplement the solar energy obtained from wood (see 301 B.C.). The Saxon Chronicle of the Abbey of Peterborough states that the abbot of Ceobred has rented the land of Sempringham to one Wilfred, who is to send to the monastery each year "60 loads of wood, 12 loads of coal, six loads of peat . . ." (see 1233 A.D.).

853 A.D.: political events

The Anglo-Saxon king Burgred of Mercia appeals to Ethelwulf (Aethelwulf), king of Wessex, for help in subduing the northern Welsh. Ethelwulf agrees, the Welsh are beaten, and Burgred (who inherited his crown last year) marries Ethelwulf's daughter Ethelswith (Aethelswith) (see 868 A.D.).

The king of the West Franks Charles II (the Bald) goes to war with his half-brother Ludwig the German.

Danish marauders in Gaul move eastward from Nantes without opposition and reach Tours November 8. They burn a church and in the next few months will burn the château of Blois.

853 A.D.: art

The Japanese painter Kudawara Kuwanari dies. He has been the nation's first prominent artist.

855 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Lothair dies September 29 at age 60 after dividing his lands between his three sons and is succeeded as emperor by his 33-year-old son Ludwig, who will reign until 875 as Ludwig II. He has been king of Italy since 844 and receives Italy along with the imperial crown while his brother Lothair II receives part of Austrasia, which is renamed Lotharingia (kingdom of Lothair), or Lorraine. A third son, Charles, receives Provence and southern Burgundy.

Viking marauders leave their ships and try to reach Poitiers overland (see 853 A.D.), but an Aquitanian force defeats them in a skirmish and scarcely 300 escape (see 856 A.D.).

The Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil sends his general Bugha al-Kabir to suppress an Armenian uprising of rebellious nakharars; the Armenian governor Smbat Aklabas Bagratuni has remained loyal to the caliph, but he is sent with the rest of the captive nobles to Samarra (see 806 A.D.; 862 A.D.).

855 A.D.: religion

The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelwulf (Aethelwulf) of Wessex makes a pilgrimage to Rome with his 6-year-old son Alfred.

Pope Leo IV dies at Rome in July after an 8-year reign. His successor will reign until 858 as Benedict III; Ludwig II the Bavarian sets up Anastasius the Librarian as antipope, imprisons Benedict briefly, but soon drops his opposition. Another antipope will reign until 857 as John IX.

856 A.D.: political events

Danish marauders reach Orléans April 18 and pillage the city without meeting any opposition (see 855 A.D.).

The 18-year-old Norwegian chieftain Halfdan the Black Godfreyson makes himself king of Agder and will quickly expand his realm through military conquest and political negotiations, dividing the kingdom with his brother Olaf, using force to obtain half of Vingulmark from its king Gandalf, and going on to take over Raumarike, half of Hedemark, and the rest of Vingulmark.

The Kentish prince Ethelbald (Aethelbald) leads a rebellion against his father, Ethelwulf (Aethelwulf) of Wessex.

856 A.D.: environment

An earthquake at Corinth kills an estimated 45,000 Greeks.

857 A.D.: medicine

The first recorded major outbreak of ergotism kills thousands in the Rhine Valley who have eaten bread made from rye infected with the ergot fungus parasite Claviceps (clubheaded) purpura (purple). The fungus contains several alkaloid drugs, including ergotamine, which is transformed in baking into an hallucinogen (see 943 A.D.).

858 A.D.: political events

The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelwulf (Aethelwulf) of Wessex dies after giving up the kingdom of the West Saxons to his rebellious son Ethelbald (Aethelbald); he is succeeded by his second son Ethelbert (Aethelbert), who will reign until 865 (see 860 A.D.).

The Scottish king Kenneth I McAlpin dies after a 22-year reign in which he has been crowned at Scone and united the various parts of Scotland with his native Dalriada. His 46-year-old brother succeeds as Donald I, king of Alba, but will reign only until 863.

Algeciras is sacked by Vikings, who are driven off by the Arabs who took the town in 711.

The Japanese emperor Montoku dies at age 31 and is succeeded by his 9-year-old son Seiwa, who will reign until 876, with Yoshifusa Fujiwara, 54, governing as regent until his death in 872.

858 A.D.: religion

Pope Benedict III dies at Rome April 17 after a 3-year reign in which he has repaired the churches that were damaged by Muslim invaders 12 years ago. He is succeeded by a Roman cleric who will reign until 867 as Nicholas I.

859 A.D.: political events

Danish marauders reach the Rhône after a long sea voyage from Spain and North Africa, pillage cities and monasteries along the river, and establish themselves on the island of Camargue. They move on toward Italy, plunder Pisa, and subject other cities to the same treatment.

860 A.D.: political events

Danish invaders destroy Winchester, overcoming stout resistance from the ealdormen Osric and Ethelwulf (Aethelwulf); the West Saxon co-ruler Ethelbald (Aethelbald) of Wessex dies, and his younger brother Ethelbert (Aethelbert) becomes sole king of Wessex and Kent after two younger brothers renounce their claims. Ethelbert will reign until his death in late 865 or early 866, trying to resist inroads by the Danes.

860 A.D.: communications, media

The simplified Japanese alphabet Hiragana becomes popular among Japanese women. The phonetic alphabet will be further simplified and reduced to 51 basic characters that will be used to supplement the Konji (Chinese) alphabet, which contains thousands of characters.

861 A.D.: political events

Maurauding Norsemen sack Paris, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Worms, and Toulouse as the Vikings overrun much of western Europe.

862 A.D.: political events

Lothair of Lorraine tries to divorce his wife, Theutberga, on trumped-up charges of incest; a synod at Aachen in April gives him permission to remarry, probably after he has paid bribes to obtain its approval (but see 863 A.D.).

Arab authorities in Armenia accept Smbat Ablabas Bagatuni's son Ashot as "prince of princes" (see 855 A.D.; 885 A.D.).

Novgorod is founded by the Scandinavian chief Rurik, who makes himself grand prince and establishes the Russian royal family that will rule until 1598.

863 A.D.: political events

The Scottish king Donald I of Alba dies at age 51 (approximate) after a 5-year reign in which he has established a body of rights and law that will be known as the laws of Aedh: the successor to a king under this custom of tanistry is to be elected during the king's lifetime from the eldest and worthiest of his brothers or cousins in preference to a son. Whether Donald died in battle at Scone or at his palace in Kinn Belachoir will not be recorded, but he has never married, his 27-year-old nephew succeeds as king of the Scots and Picts, and he will reign until his death in 877 as Constantine I, fighting off Norse invaders (see 864 A.D.) while using bribery and payoffs to keep his rivals from breaking the peace.

863 A.D.: religion

Pope Nicholas I sends Archbishops Günther of Cologne and Theutgaud of Trier (Trèves) to a synod at Metz, which confirms the permission given at last year's synod at Aachen to permit Lothair of Lorraine to remarry, but Lothair's wife, Theutberga, appeals to the pope, and when his legates return to Rome he quashes the libelous decree issued by the synod and treats Lothair as an ecclesiastical subject.

Pope Nicholas I excommunicates the patriarch of Constantinople Photius, 43 (see 867 A.D.)

863 A.D.: communications, media

The Cyrillic alphabet that will be used by Russians, Bulgarians, and other peoples is invented by the Macedonian missionary Cyril, 36, and his brother Methodius, 35, who have preached the gospel to the Khazar and who begin preaching in Moravia, where they have been sent by the Byzantine emperor Michael, now 24, at the request of Moravia's ruler Rostislav.

864 A.D.: political events

Norsemen under the command of Olaf the White arrive in Scotland from Dublin and rampage through the country until defeated in battle by Constantine I. He will also defeat Thorsten the Red.

The Norse king Halfdan the Black Godfreyson dies at age 40 when he falls through the ice of a lake (a hole has been dug for cattle to drink and heat from their dung has weakened the ice) (year approximate). His 10-year-old son Harald Harfagre (the Fair-Haired) inherits Halfdan's realm, but Harald and his mother's brother Guthorm will have to defeat five contenders for the thrones of several small and scattered kingdoms (see 866 A.D.).

864 A.D.: religion

The Bulgarian khan Boris I accepts the Orthodox faith after losing a war with the Byzantines, who force Orthodoxy upon him (he had intended to accept Roman Christianity). His family and the bishops who have supported his policy are baptized in a secret nocturnal ceremony by a Byzantine bishop and priests who have been sent to the Bulgarian capital, Pliska, but when Boris tries to enforce mass baptism there his noblemen and the peasantry revolt. He executes 52 boyars and their families in retribution.

865 A.D.: political events

Viking raiders under the command of Ragnar Lodbrok land in Northumbria on the northern coast of England (see 845 A.D.). Ragnar has enriched himself and his followers with the pillage of French estates and monasteries; his fourth son, Ivor "the Boneless," has urged him to look to England for more booty, but the Northumbrians capture him in battle and their king Ella has him thrown into a pit filled with poisonous snakes that slowly kill him. Ivor hears of his father's death and vows revenge (see 866 A.D.).

The West Saxon king Ethelbert (Aethelbert) of Wessex dies late in the year after a 5-year reign and is succeeded by his brother Ethelred (Aethelred), who will reign until his death in 871, fighting to resist Danish incursions (see 870 A.D.).

Russian Norsemen sack Constantinople, whose inhabitants have withstood a siege.

866 A.D.: political events

The Viking raider Ivor "the Boneless" crosses the North Sea with a large army and does battle with Northumbria's king Ella, who had his father killed last year by poisonous snakes. He captures Ella and by some accounts sentences him to die by the traditional Viking way of "blood red eagle:" his men cut out Ella's ribs, seize the lungs, and spread them across his body. Ivor invades East Anglia and next year will attack Jorvik (later York).

The young Norse chieftain Harald Harfagre (the Fair-Haired) and his uncle Guthorn conquer one of the petty kingdoms that comprise Norway (see 864 A.D.; 868 A.D.).

Byzantine strongman Caesar Bardas is murdered in April with the consent of his nephew, the emperor Michael III. The assassin is Michael's Armenian chamberlain Basil, who has divorced his own wife to marry a mistress of the emperor in order to please Michael, who rewards him by making him co-emperor.

Bulgaria's Boris I sends ambassadors to Pope Nicholas I and the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig II in an effort to renew ties with the West (see 864 A.D.). The pope sends a delegation to Bulgaria, but Constantinople takes exception and will ultimately succeed in keeping the Bulgarians out of the Roman Church (see 1867 A.D.).

867 A.D.: political events

The Macedonian dynasty that will rule the Byzantine Empire until 1054 is founded by the co-emperor Basil, who has Michael III murdered in September and will reign until 886 as Basil I. Raised in Macedonia, the new emperor will rebuild the Byzantine army and navy in an effort to restore the empire.

867 A.D.: religion

A schism with the Roman Church that will become final in 1054 has its beginnings in an encyclical against Pope Nicholas I from the patriarch of Constantinople Photius (see 863 A.D.). The Council of Constantinople anathematizes the pope, who dies at Rome November 13 at age 67 after a 9-year reign in which he has demonstrated the power of the papacy and paved the way for reform popes in centuries to come. Nicholas's weak, 75-year-old successor will reign until his death in 872 as Adrian II.

868 A.D.: political events

The Norse chieftain Harald Harfagre (the Fair-Haired) raises a force at Trondheim in the spring and lets it be known that he will move to South More against Solve Klofe, who has passed the winter in his ships, plundering in North More and killing many of Harald's men. Solve gains allies in the fjords, the two sides clash, lashing their ships together. Harald's sword takes a heavy toll. Solve flees (he will later become an important sea king), Harald subdues South More, but he has lost two of his brothers-in-law and two earls in the battle (see 869 A.D.).

The Anglo-Saxon king Burgred of Mercia appeals to Ethelred (Aethelred) and Alfred of Wessex for help in resisting Danish invaders who have occupied Nottingham, but the Danes are allowed to remain through the winter without any serious opposition (see 870 A.D.).

868 A.D.: communications, media

The Diamond Sutra is the world's first printed book; produced in China, it will be found by archaeologists in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas at Gansu (Kansu).

869 A.D.: political events

Harald Harfagre (the Fair-Haired) moves southwards along the Norwegian coast with his fleet of long ships, subdues Firdafylke, sets up Earl Haakon Grjotgarsson as head of the fjord district, and sails eastward (see 868 A.D.). Haakon sends word to Earl Atle Mjove that Harald has given him Atle's Sogn district and orders him out. Atle raises an army, the two battle at Fialar in Stavanger fjord, Hakaon is killed, and Atle suffers a mortal wound. Harald lands at Tunsberg and learns that the Swedish king Erik Eymundsson has taken coastal lands whose inhabitants are paying taxes (see 872 A.D.).

Mutinous troops murder the Abbasid caliph al-Mutazz; he is succeeded by a grandson of the late al-Mutassim (but see 870 A.D.).

The Zanj rebellion against the Abbasid caliphate roils Mesopotamia beginning in September. Basran landowners have imported several thousand East African blacks (Zanj) to drain salt marshes to their east, provided them with only meager sustenance, and forced them to work virtually as slaves. Led by the Persian Ali ibn Mohammed, who claims descent from the fourth caliph, Ali, and his wife, Fatima, the Zanj defeat a Basran force in October and build an inaccessible capital in a dry spot surrounded by canals in the salt flats. Ali ibn Mohammed promises his followers freedom and wealth, winning allegiance by decrying the injustice of their position (see 870 A.D.).

870 A.D.: political events

The Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadi abdicates under pressure from the Turks after a brief reign. The Turks choose another grandson of the late al-Mutasim as caliph; he will reign until 892 as al-Mutamid, moving his court to Baghdad.

The Zanj rebellion that began last year in Mesopotamia continues as black insurgent workers capture the Persian Gulf seaport of al-Ubdullah and cut off communications with Basra. The new caliph al-Mutamid gives command of the Abbasid armies to his brother al-Muwaffaq, but the rebels seize Ahvaz in southwestern Persia (see 871 A.D.).

Arab invaders from Tunisia take the island of Malta in the Mediterranean from the Byzantines who have ruled it since about 533 (year approximate). The island's inhabitants either flee to Sicily or are taken captive. The Byzantines will make no effort to regain it until 1048, and it will remain in Arab hands until 1091.

The Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig II forces Charles II (the Bald), king of Lorraine, to accept the Treaty of Mersen, which partitions Lorraine, dividing it equally on the basis of revenue. Ludwig gains territory west of the Rhine.

The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelred (Aethelred) I of Wessex defeats the Danes December 31 in a skirmish at Englefield in Berkshire (see 868 A.D.; 871 A.D.).

871 A.D.: political events

Danish forces defeat Ethelred (Aethelred) of Wessex January 4 at Reading. He gains a brilliant victory 4 days later at Ashdown, is defeated January 22 at Basing, triumphs again March 2 at Marton in Wiltshire, but dies in April after a reign of less than 6 years, possibly of wounds received in battle. His 22-year-old brother pays tribute to the Danes but will reign until 899 with such brilliance that he will be called Alfred the Great.

Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia sack Basra in September (see 870 A.D.; 872 A.D.).

872 A.D.: political events

The Norse chieftain Harald Harfagre (the Fair-Haired) wins a great victory at Hafrsfjord outside Stavenger and at age 18 finds himself king of all Norway (see 869 A.D.). He will reign until his death in 931 as Harald I, siring 23 children by eight wives, but he will encounter challenges from Norsemen who resent his claims of taxation on lands to which they have enjoyed absolute ownership. His opponents will in many cases take refuge in the Orkney, Shetland, Faeroe, and Hebrides islands, in Scotland, and (later) in Iceland (see exploration, 874), venturing forth from their winter quarters to harry the coasts of Norway and northern Europe. Harald will have to undertake an expedition to the west to clear these Vikings from the islands and from Scotland.

The Scottish king Constantine I of Alba assassinates his brother-in-law Run (Arthgal), king of Strathclyde, and makes southern Scotland part of Alba.

Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia defeat the Abbasid caliph's brother al-Muwaffaq in April (see 871 A.D.). Hostilities in eastern Persia will preoccupy al-Muwaffaq for the next 7 years, and the Zanj will take advantage of his absence (see 878 A.D.).

The Japanese regent (sessho) Yoshifusa Fujiwara dies at his native Kyoto October 7 at age 68, having ruled the country since 858. He is succeeded as head of the Fujiwara family by his son Mototsune, 36, who will become regent in 876.

872 A.D.: religion

Pope Adrian II dies at Rome December 14 at age 80 after a vacillating 5-year reign in which he has approved the use of the Slavic language in liturgy but lost Bulgaria to the Greek Orthodox Church. He is succeeded by a deacon of the Church who will reign until 882 as John VIII, supporting Archbishop Methodius in the Christianizing of the Slavs and sanctioning use of the Cyrillic alphabet.

874 A.D.: political events

Danish forces move into Mercia, King Burgred abdicates and makes a pilgrimage to Rome (where he will die next year), and the Danes set up a puppet king.

874 A.D.: exploration, colonization

Viking Norsemen discover Iceland and begin almost immediately to colonize the country (see 790 A.D.; Greenland, 900 A.D.; Althing, 930 A.D.).

875 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig II dies in Brescia August 12 at age 50 after having named his cousin Carloman, son of Ludwig the German, as his successor, but Charles II (the Bald) persuades Carloman to go home, beats the king of the East Franks Ludwig the German to Rome, and makes himself emperor.

876 A.D.–900 A.D.

876 A.D.: political events

The king of the East Franks Ludwig the German (der Deutsch) dies at Frankfurt August 28 at age 72 while preparing for war with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald). Most competent of Charlemagne's descendants, Ludwig is succeeded by his son Carloman, who will reign as king of Bavaria until 880. His 44-year-old younger son Charles is granted lordship over Swabia (see 879 A.D.).

The Japanese emperor Saiwa abdicates at age 26 and is succeeded by his mentally and physically weak 8-year-old son Yozei, who will reign until 884 with Mototsune Fujiwara governing the country as regent (see 880 A.D.).

877 A.D.: political events

Danish forces seize Exeter while their leaders are deceptively negotiating with Alfred, king of Wessex. He blockades the town, a relief fleet is scattered by a storm, and the Danes are forced to surrender and withdraw to Mercia.

The Scottish king Constantine of Alba I is killed at age 41 (approximate) fighting Norse invaders at the "Black Cave" (Inverdovat) in Fife. His brother Aed succeeds him after a 14-year reign but will reign only until next year.

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles II (the Bald) dies October 5 at age 54 while crossing the pass of the Mont Cenis en route back to Gaul. He is succeeded as king of France (but not as emperor) by his 30-year-old son Louis le Begue (the Stammerer), king of Aquitaine, who will reign briefly as France's Louis II. The imperial throne will remain vacant until 881.

The Cambodian throne is usurped by a cousin of Jayavarman III, who has reigned since the death of his father in 850. The cousin will reign until about 890 as Indravarman I, constructing a large reservoir that will lead to the development of extensive irrigation systems and enable Cambodia to raise vast quantities of rice on heretofore unproductive lands.

878 A.D.: political events

Danish forces under the command of their chief Guthrum surprise the Wessex king Alfred in January at Chippenham, where he has been celebrating Christmas. Most of his men are killed, but he escapes through woods and swamps with a small band of survivors and prepares a counteroffensive from Athelney. Troops from Somersetshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire join Alfred in mid-May. He meets the Danes at Ethandun (Edington) in Wiltshire, and he gains a great victory, forcing the Danes back to East Anglia. The Treaty of Wedmore signed by Alfred and Guthrum divides England between them, and although fighting will resume in the next few years neither will be able to subdue the other (see 879 A.D.; Danelaw, 886).

The Scottish king Aed loses his throne to a son of the late Donald I and a grandson of the late Kenneth I McAlpin; Giric and Eohaid will reign until 889.

The Danish king Guthrum submits to Alfred at Aller in Somersetshire and accepts baptism to Christianity along with his grandson Ragnar and 29 of his chief officers, taking the name Aethelstan.

Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia seize Wasit and establish a presence in the Persian province of Khuzistan (see 872 A.D.; 879 A.D.).

879 A.D.: political events

France's Louis II (the Stammerer) dies at Compiègne April 10 at age 32 after an ineffectual reign of 18 months. He is succeeded by his teenage sons, who assume the throne jointly as Louis III and Carloman. They are crowned at Ferrière in September and divide the kingdom between them a few months later.

Alfred the Great clears the Danes out of Wessex and most of Mercia (see 878 A.D.), but London will remain in Danish hands until 885.

Baldwin I (Iron-Arm, Baudouin Bras-de-Fer, or Boudewun de Ijzere Arm) dies after 15 years as margrave of Flanders (Marchio Flandriae). The first ruler of Flanders, he owed his hereditary fief to France's late Charles II (the Bald), whose daughter Judith he married in 862, and he has defended the coastline against Viking marauders.

The lord of Swabia Charles the Fat becomes king of Italy following the abdication of its throne by his older brother Carloman.

The Abbasid general al-Muwaffaq launches a major offensive against the Zanj rebels who have defied him since 870 (see 878 A.D.). He will take their second city, al-Maniah (the Impregnable) within a year and expel them from Khuzistan (see 881 A.D.).

880 A.D.: political events

The Japanese regent Mototsune Fujiwara, 44, creates the position of chancellor (kampaku) through which his family will be able to dominate the government for more than 3 centuries.

881 A.D.: political events

The throne of the Holy Roman Empire that has been vacant since 877 is filled in February. Pope John VIII crowns the third son of the late Ludwig the German at Rome; now 48, the stout king of Saxony begins a 6-year reign as Charles III.

The Abbasid general al-Muwaffaq lays siege in the spring to the Zanj capital of al-Mukhtarah, using as his base a new city which he has had built on the opposite side of the Tigris River (see 880 A.D.; 883 A.D.).

882 A.D.: political events

France's Louis III dies at St. Denis August 5 at age 19, and his brother Carloman becomes sole king.

882 A.D.: religion

Pope John VIII is assassinated at Rome December 16 after a 10-year reign, probably the victim of a political conspiracy. He is succeeded by a deacon of the Church who will reign until 884 as Marinus I; the papal throne at Rome will have 37 occupants in the next 164 years, with some popes serving for no more than a few weeks.

883 A.D.: political events

The Abbasid general al-Muwaffiq brings in Egyptian forces to help him in his 2-year siege of the Zenj capital, captures the city, and crushes rebellion that has devastated Chaldea since 869. He returns to Baghdad with the head of the rebellion's instigator Ali ibn Mohammed.

883 A.D.: communications, media

Baghdad stands out as the world's great intellectual center, with mathematicians, physicians, scholars, scientists, and more than 100 shops selling paper (see 793 A.D.). Such shops line the streets of the Suq al-warraquin, or Stationers' Market, and the city is a center of paper-making, the standard sheet (roughly 29 inches by 43 inches in size) being known as a bagdatixon, or Baghdad sheet (see 1189 A.D.).

884 A.D.: political events

The Japanese chancellor (kampaku) Mototsune Fujiwara forces the emperor Jozei to abdicate at age 16 after an 8-year reign. Jozei has devoted himself mainly to his horses but has challenged Fujiwara's rule; he is succeeded by the 54-year-old half-brother of his grandfather, who will reign until 887 as Koko.

France's king Carloman dies December 12 while hunting and is succeeded as king of the West Franks by his younger brother Charles, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles III (the Fat), who becomes France's Charles II.

884 A.D.: religion

Pope Marinus I dies at Rome May 15 after a reign of less than 1½ years in which he has absolved and restored Cardinal Bishop Formosus of Porto. Marinus is succeeded by a cleric who will reign until next year as Adrian III.

884 A.D.: food availability

Rome has a famine. The new pope Adrian III helps feed the needy.

885 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles III disposes of his rival Hugh of Alsace, illegitimate son of the late Lothair II.

Alfred the Great retakes London from the Danes and suppresses a revolt by the East Anglian Danes (see 879 A.D.; Danelaw, 886).

Norsemen under the command of a chieftain named Siegfried come up the Seine to Paris late in the year with hundreds of long ships and many barques, lining the river so thickly at one point that no water can be seen. The Holy Roman Emperor Charles III has charged Odo, count of Paris, with defending the city (see 886 A.D.).

The Armenian prince Ashot is recognized as king by the Byzantine emperor Basil I and the Abbasid caliph al-Mutamid (see 855 A.D.).

885 A.D.: religion

Pope Adrian III dies near Modena in September while en route to the Diet of Worms, having been summoned by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles III to settle the issue of imperial succession and discuss the rising power of the Saracens. Adrian is succeeded after a 16-month reign by a cleric who will reign until 891 as Stephen V (or VI).

886 A.D.: political events

The Norsemen who came up the Seine to Paris last year lay siege to the city; Count Odo with his brother Robert have gathered Frankish forces to repel the invaders, who lash their long ships together into a bridge to link the right bank to the island on which the city stands. The Vikings shoot darts and poisoned arrows over the walls. The defenders pour heated oil, wax, and pitch from the ramparts, but disease breaks out inside the walls and there is not enough ground to bury the dead. Count Odo makes his way out of the city to implore the Holy Roman Emperor Charles III for help. He returns in shining armor with a relief force and reaches safety within the walls. He launches a successful attack on the besiegers. The emperor arrives with a large polyglot army in October, and he establishes a camp at the base of what later will be called Montmartre (see 887 A.D.).

The Wessex king Alfred signs a peace treaty with the Danish chieftain Aethlstan (Guthrum) (see 885 A.D.). They divide Alfred's Wessex from Aethelstan's East Anglia with a line running "along the River Thames, and then up the Lea and then along the Lea to its source, then directly to Bedford, and then up the Ouse to Watling Street"; the Danelaw they create lays down rules regarding ownership of oxen and slaves, establishes equivalencies between Saxon and Danish ranks for such things as the wergild (money to be paid for killing a man of a certain rank) and will remain the legal code until about 1100. The word Danelaw will soon come to mean also four main regions: East Anglia, Northumbria, the southeast Midlands, and the territory around and including the fortified towns of Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford (the Old English word burg for fortified town will evolve into the word borough).

The Byzantine emperor Basil I dies August 29 after a 19-year reign that has been marked by rare wisdom despite its treacherous beginnings and despite Basil's lack of education. He is succeeded by a son of the late emperor Michael by Basil's widow, Eudocia, who will reign until 912 as Leo VI (the Wise).

887 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Charles III (the Fat) agrees in early spring to let the Viking invaders withdraw peacefully from Paris, paying them 700 pounds of silver on condition that they leave France for their own kingdom by March (see 886 A.D.); as Charles II of France, he permits them to ravage the Burgundian region around Sens without interference. East Frankish magnates revolt against the inept emperor in an assembly at Frankfurt (or Tribur) in November and depose him. His grandson Arnulf, the illegitimate son of Charles's son Carloman, is elected king of the East Franks. Charles yields his throne without a struggle, he retires to Neidingen, and there will be no emperor until 891. The West Franks, Burgundians, and Italians will elect their own kings, and the Carolingian empire that began in 814 will dissolve (see 888 A.D.).

The Japanese emperor Koko abdicates and soon dies at age 57. He is succeeded by his 20-year-old son, who will reign until 897 as Uda.

888 A.D.: political events

The former Holy Roman Emperor Charles III (the Fat) dies at Neidingen January 13 at age 55 (approximate), having suffered from frequent bouts of illness that may have been epilepsy. His empire breaks up, but the son of the German Guelph Conrad, count of Auxerre, is quickly crowned king of Juran (Upper) Burgundy at the abbey of St. Maurice d'Agaune and begins a 24-year reign as Rudolf I, moving quickly to extend his realm to cover much of Alsace and Lorraine (see 887 A.D.); the East Frankish king Arnulf attacks Rudolf and by year's end he has given up his claims in return for Arnulf's recognition of the kingdom of Burgundy.

Charles is succeeded as king of the West Franks by the capable Odo, count of Paris, who is elected by one faction while another supports Charles the Simple, posthumous 10-year-old son of the late Louis the Stammerer, who is acclaimed at Laon as Charles III of France (see 898 A.D.).

Berengar of Friuli (Berengario del Friuli) is elected king of Italy at Pavia but is obliged to acknowledge the overlordship of the East Frankish king Arnulf (see 887 A.D.). A grandson of the late Louis the Pious, Berengar will soon find himself barred by Guy of Spoleto (Guido di Spoleto) from sovereignty anywhere but in the northeastern part of the peninsula.

889 A.D.: political events

The Scottish kings Giric and Eochaid who have reigned jointly since 878 are deposed and succeeded by the eldest son of the late Constantine I, who will reign until 900 as Donald II.

The Bulgarian khan Boris I abdicates after a 37-year reign in which he has brought together the polyglot peoples of his realm under one religion, with one written (Cyrillic) language, and given asylum to disciples of the missionaries Cyril and Methodius, who were driven out of Moravia. Boris becomes a monk and is succeeded by his eldest son, who will reign until 893 as Vladimir I, abandoning Boris's policies as he becomes a tool of pagan reaction (see 893 A.D.).

Magyars from the steppe of central Asia move west under the leadership of their chief, Arpád, to escape the Patzinaks (or Pechenegs) and find themselves in the midst of a war between Bulgaria and the Byzantines. Bribed by the Byzantines to attack their enemy, they enjoy some initial success (but see 893 A.D.).

890 A.D.: political events

Alfred the Great extends the power of the king's courts and establishes a regular English militia and navy.

890 A.D.: literature

Fiction: Taketori Monogatari (the story of a bamboo gatherer) by a Japanese writer.

891 A.D.: political events

The king of Italy Guy II (Guido di Spoleto) is crowned Holy Roman Emperor February 21 by Pope Stephen V (or VI), who has favored the East Frankish king Arnulf but has been intimidated into crowning Guy. The new emperor will not generally be recognized as such.

Vikings on the Dyle River north of Brussels suffer a crushing defeat at the hands of the East Frankish king Arnulf. They have been making raids up the Rhine River but those raids will end abruptly next year. Norwegian Rollo Rognvaldsson, 45, marries the 18-year-old Poppa, duchess of Normandy, daughter of Berenger de Bayeux; he will be remembered as Rollo the Viking.

The Japanese chancellor (kampaku) Mototsune Fujiwara dies at his native Kyoto February 25 at age 54, having forced the resignation of the emperor Yozei. He is succeeded as head of the Fujiwara family by his 21-year-old son Tokihara, who will maintain Fujiwara control of the country despite efforts by the new emperor Uda to check the family's power.

891 A.D.: religion

Pope Stephen V (or VI) dies at his native Rome September 14 after a 6-year reign. He is succeeded October 6 by the cardinal bishop of Porto, who will reign until 896 as Formosus.

892 A.D.: political events

Danish forces invade England in the autumn, arriving from the mainland in 330 ships along with their wives and children (see 893 A.D.; Danelaw, 886 A.D.).

The Abbasid caliph al-Mutamid dies after a 22-year reign in which he has lost his eastern provinces. His nephew has forced him to disinherit his own son, has served as co-regent in recent years, and will reign until his own death in 902 as al-Mutadid, reorganizing the caliphate's administration, reforming its finances, concluding peace with the Tulunids by marrying their caliph's daughter, and restoring Egypt to the caliphate.

Persia's nobility installs the former Samanid governor of Transoxiana as shah; appointed governor at age 21, he has extended his rule to cover Tabaristan and Khorasan and, although nominally subservient to the caliph of Baghdad, established independent dominion throughout eastern Persia, ruling from his capital at Bukhara. He will reign until his death in 907 as Ismail I ibn Ahmad, gaining a reputation for bravery, generosity, and justice.

893 A.D.: political events

Bulgaria's former khan Boris I dethrones his son Vladimir with help from loyal boyars and the army (see 889 A.D.); he has Vladimir blinded and installs his third son, who will rule until 927 as Symeon I. The new king makes an alliance with the Patzinaks (or Pechenegs) from the Asian steppe, and they drive the Magyars up the Danube Valley into what later will be Hungary (see 889 A.D.).

Alfred the Great's 23-year-old son Edward defeats Danish forces at Farnham and forces them to take refuge on Thorney Island (see 892 A.D.). Another army of Danes besieges Essex, but Alfred raises the siege and the Danes receive other setbacks (see 894 A.D.).

893 A.D.: literature

Nonfiction: The Life of Alfred the Great by the Welsh monk Asser, bishop of Sherborne, who studies for 6 months each year in Alfred's household. Alfred has established schools for the sons of noblemen.

894 A.D.: political events

The Holy Roman Emperor Guy of Spoleto (Guido di Spoleto) dies after a 3-year reign and is succeeded by his son and co-emperor Lambert, with whom he has reigned since 892 and who will continue as emperor until 898 (but see Arnulf, 896 A.D.).

Moravia's Svatopluk dies after a 34-year reign in which he has united Moravia, Slovakia, and Bohemia under the name Great Moravia to oppose the Germans. He has himself been overcome by the Magyars (see 889 A.D.).

Danish forces in England retire to Essex after being deprived of food by Alfred the Great (see 893 A.D.). They draw their ships up the Thames and the Lea, entrenching themselves 20 miles above London (see 895 A.D.).

895 A.D.: political events

Alfred the Great blocks the Lea River, captures the Danish fleet, and forces the Danes to move off to the northwest (see 894 A.D.; 896 A.D.).

The Magyars are expelled from southern Russia (see 893 A.D.); their chief Arpád leads them into the Carpathian Alps (see 896 A.D.).

896 A.D.: political events

The Bavarian king Arnulf of Carinthia invades Italy, takes Rome in February, and has himself crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Formosus at St. Peter's February 22. He sets out to establish his authority in Spoleto but is seized en route by paralysis and returns home, leaving his rival emperor, Lambert of Spoleto, in control of the empire, although the pope has declared Lambert to be deposed.

Alfred the Great ends the Danish threat to his country (see 895 A.D.). The Danes abandon the struggle, and some return to the mainland, while others retire to Northumbria and East Anglia.

Arpád leads his Magyar tribespeople out of the Carpathians into the Danube Valley (see 895 A.D.); he establishes a Hungarian realm, which he will rule until his death in 907.

896 A.D.: religion

Pope Formusus dies at Rome April 4 at age 79 and is succeeded by a Roman subdeacon who reigns until later in the month as Boniface VI but either dies of gout or is murdered by his successor, who will reign until next year as Stephen VI (or VII).

897 A.D.: political events

The Japanese emperor Uda abdicates at age 30 after a 10-year reign and is succeeded by his son, 12, who will reign until 930 as the emperor Daigo.

897 A.D.: religion

Lambert of Spoleto orders Pope Stephen VI (VII) to exhume the 9-month-old cadaver of the late pope Formosus, avenges that pontiff's crowning of Arnulf 2 years ago by having the body dressed in pontifical robes and placed on trial at St. Peter's, where a deacon answers for the cadaver. The late pope's election is declared invalid, his body is "convicted" of several crimes, his fingers of consecration are cut off, and the body is stripped of its raiment, further mutilated, and thrown into a potter's field (it is later dropped into the Tiber). Pope Stephen is removed from office, stripped of his papal insignia, imprisoned, and strangled to death in July or August. He is succeeded by Romanus, who is elected in August, deposed in November, and succeeded by Theodore II, who reigns for 20 days, gives the corpse of Formosus an honorable reburial, and is succeeded in December by a cleric who will reign until 900 as John IX, beginning a period of intrigue, murder, and terror that will continue for 12 years.

898 A.D.: political events

The Carolingian king Odo (Eudes) of the Western Franks dies at La Fre January 1 and his rival Charles III (the Simple) in Laon gains sole sovereignty at age 20 after 5 years of civil war (see 888 A.D.). The last Carolingian king, Charles will reign as king of France until 922 but will have no real authority.

Berengar, marquis of Friuli, marches on Pavia; the Holy Roman Emperor Lambert, duke of Spoleto, counterattacks and defeats Berengar, but he returns to Marengo, Lombardy, where he has been hunting and is killed there October 15, either by assassination or in a fall from his horse; Berengar gains recognition as king of Italy following Lambert's death, and Arnulf of Carinthia becomes Holy Roman Emperor (but see 899 A.D.).

898 A.D.: religion

Pope John IX is consecrated at his native Rome in January and immediately excommunicates his rival Sergius. The new pope holds councils at Rome and Ravenna to rehabilitate the late Pope Formosus, they condemn the synod of the late Pope Stephen VI (or VII), restore the clergymen who were deposed by Pope Stephen's faction, and confirm the Constitutio Romana of the Frankish emperor Lothair I which makes the presence of an imperial emissary compulsory at papal elections.

899 A.D.: political events

Alfred the Great dies April 26 at age 49 after a 28-year reign in which he has forced invading Danes to withdraw, consolidated England around Wessex, divided parts of Mercia into shires, compiled the best laws of earlier kings, and encouraged learning by bringing famous scholars to Wessex and making his own translations of Latin works. Alfred is succeeded by his son Edward, now 29, who will reign until 924.

The ailing Holy Roman Emperor Arnulf enlists the support of Magyars to raid Italy. They defeat the Italian king Berengar of Friuli on the Brenta River. Arnulf marches south to settle accounts with his rival Lambert of Spoleto, but he suffers a sudden relapse, starts out for home in Bavaria, and dies December 8 at age 49 while still en route. Moravians and Hungarians have invaded his territories in the final 3 years of Arnulf's reign, he has lost his Italian possessions, Lotharingia has rebelled, and France has freed herself of his influence. He is succeeded as German king by his 6-year-old son Ludwig, who will reign until 911 as Ludwig III (the Child), the last of the German Carolingian kings. (Arnulf's counselor Hatto I, 49, archbishop of Mainz, tutors the new sovereign and governs the German kingdom together with Adelbero, bishop of Augsburg, who serves as Ludwig's co-guardian.)

900 A.D.: political events

The Scottish king Donald II is killed after an 11-year reign and succeeded by a son of his late uncle Aed, who ruled briefly after the death in battle of Donald's father, Constantine I. The new king of Alba will reign until 943 as Constantine II.

Italian noblemen invite Louis of Provence to become their king following the defeat last year of Berengar by invading Magyars (see 901 A.D.).

The Czechs assert their authority over all Bohemian tribes.

The Mayan civilization that has flourished for about 650 years in upland areas of what later will be called Central America comes to an end as a result either of depleted agricultural resources or warfare between some 40 rival city-states, the latter arising perhaps from the former (year approximate). The great stone pyramids, ball courts, and other structures at cities such as Tikal, Copán, and Palenque will soon become overgrown with jungle, as will the sculpture and relief carvings of the Maya, who have developed a calendar based on almost perfect astronomic measurements, made paper from the inner bark of wild fig trees, and devised a hieroglyphic system with which they wrote books (codices). Cities such as Chíchén Itzá, Mayapán, and Uzmal in the highlands of the Yucatán Peninsula will continue to flourish until 1519 (see Landa, 1561 A.D.).

900 A.D.: exploration, colonization

Greenland is discovered by the Norseman Gunbjorn, who is blown off course while sailing from Norway to Iceland and comes upon the land (see Iceland, 874 A.D.; Erik the Red, 981 A.D.).

Breslau has its beginnings in the Bohemian fortress of Wrotizlav built on the banks of the Oder River.

900 A.D.: medicine

The chief physician of a busy Baghdad hospital gives the first description of smallpox (see 583 A.D.). Rhazes (Abu-Bakr Muhammed ibn-Zakariya al-Razi) distinguishes smallpox from measles for the first time and establishes criteria for diagnosing the disease that will be used until the 18th century (see inoculation, 1718 A.D.).

900 A.D.: religion

Pope John IX dies in January after a 2-year reign and is succeeded by a cleric who will reign until 903 as Benedict IV.

801 A.D.–825 A.D. 826 A.D.–850 A.D. 851 A.D.–875 A.D. 876 A.D.–900 A.D.

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