Jan 1, 2010
The Roman emperor Diocletian at Nicomedia issues an edict in November limiting prices of goods and services in an effort to end the economic distress caused by the collapse of Roman currency. An egg is to cost one denarius, a chicken 30, a male slave 30,000, a racehorse 300,000; farm workers are to receive no more than 25 denarii per day, bakers 50 denarii, teachers 50 denarii per pupil each month, scribes 25 denarii per 100 lines, but no attempt is made to enforce Diocletian's edict in the west, and in the east it soon proves impracticable.
The kingdom of Armenia makes Christianity an official state religion, becoming the first nation to do so (see 300 A.D.; Isaac, 388 A.D.).
Persia's Sassanian king Narses dies after a 9-year reign in which he has regained the title of chief of the Staxr temple which the late Bahram II surrendered to the Zoroastrian leader Karter, who oppressed Brahmins, Buddhists, Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, and other "heretics" (year approximate). He is succeeded by his son, who will reign until 309 as Harmizd II.
The Roman emperor Diocletian purges his army and court of Christians, beginning a policy of religious oppression (see 303 A.D.).
The public baths of the emperor Diocletian open at Rome with 3,000 rooms. They are even larger and more elaborate than the Baths of Caracalla completed in 213.
The Roman emperor Diocletian makes his first visit to Rome November 28, having brought peace to the empire. The two Augusti and the two Caesars come together for the first time and participate in a festival honoring the 20th anniversary of Diocletian's accession.
A general prosecution of Christians in the Roman Empire begins February 24 following an edict issued by the Roman emperor Diocletian, who has been persuaded to take the action by his co-emperor Galerius Valerius Maximanus. Christians are forbidden to worship in groups, and thousands of them will be killed in the next 10 years (see 304 A.D.).
The Roman emperor Diocletian issues four edicts aimed at destroying Christianity (see 303 A.D.): churches are to be dismantled, clergymen arrested, and their followers forced to sacrifice to pagan gods on pain of death. Those put to death include Agnes, a 12-year-old Christian who has refused marriage and consecrated her virginity to God. Hailed as a martyr, she will be honored as the patron saint of virgins.
Pope Marcellinus dies at Rome after an 8-year reign. The papal throne will remain vacant until 308.
The Roman emperor Diocletian abdicates May 1 at age 60 and retires to his palace at Salona (later Split) on the Adriatic coast after a reign of nearly 21 years in which the last vestiges of republican government have disappeared. Diocletian is succeeded by his Thracian co-emperor, Galerius Valerius Maximanus, and his Illyrian co-emperor, Constantius Chlorus. Valerius will try revive the old religion in a move aimed at strengthening the empire. Persians and barbarians in outlying provinces will challenge the legions in this century; most of Rome's rulers will be of peasant or barbarian origin themselves, the hereditary classes having become effete.
Rich landowners dominate the Roman Empire and enjoy the title of senator, which exempts them from the crushing taxes imposed on the rest of the population. The Senate has lost all its power and the landowners almost never attend Senate sessions. Labor and property are evaluated in terms of a unit of wheat-producing land (iugum); members of municipal senates (curiales or decuriones) are charged with the responsibility of collecting taxes and paying arrears; smaller landowners are held responsible for providing recruits for the legions and with keeping wastelands under cultivation.
The Roman co-emperor Constantius Chlorus dies July 25 at age 56 outside Eboracum (later York) during a campaign against the Picts and Scots. Roman troops in Britain salute his illegitimate son Flavius Valerius Constantinus, 26, as emperor, but the emperor Galerius at Rome recognizes Constantinus only as Caesar, not Augustus, and elevates Flavius Valerius Severus to the rank of co-emperor. The despot Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius leads an uprising, the praetorian guard proclaims him Caesar October 28, and he corners Severus at Ravenna.
China's second Jin dynasty emperor Huidi dies after a 16-year reign in which eight dukes of the imperial family have conducted a series of civil wars against each other in a struggle for power. Huidi is succeeded by his son Zhi, who will reign until 311 as the emperor Huaidi (but see 308 A.D.).
The Roman co-emperor Severus is captured and put to death at Ravenna November 11 (see 306 A.D.). The emperor Galerius Valerius Maximanus appoints the Illyrian Flavius Galerius Valerius Licinianus to succeed Severus. Flavius Valerius Constantinus in Britain proclaims himself emperor but rules only in Britain and Gaul (see 312 A.D.).
Catherine makes public confession of Christian gospel at a sacrificial feast ordered by the Roman emperor Galerius Valerius Maximinus at Alexandria. A virgin of royal descent, she is tortured on a spiked wheel (it will later be called a "catherine wheel") and beheaded; her remains are spirited to Mount Sinai.
The Roman despot Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius banishes his father, Maximian, who flees to the court of Constantine in Gaul (see 307 A.D.). The emperor Galerius confers at Carnuntum on the Danube with Maximian and Diocletian, he declares Maxentius to be a public enemy, and Flavius Galerius Valerius Licinianus is proclaimed co-emperor. He will rule until 324 as the emperor Licinius, but there are actually six men claiming the title co-emperor: Galerius, Maximian, and Licinius in the east, and Maximian, his son Maxentius, and Constantine in the west. Constantine is a son of the late Constantius Chlorus (see 309 A.D.).
The chief of China's Xiongnu tribe crowns himself king of Han as chaos continues in the wake of the civil wars that ended in 306.
The vacancy of the papal throne that has existed since the death of Pope Marcellinus in 304 ends with the election of a cleric who will reign until next year as Marcellus II.
Persia's Sassanian king Hormizd II dies after a reign of about 7 years and a power struggle for the succession ensues (see 310 A.D.).
The Roman despot Maxentius's father, Maximian, commits suicide in Gaul when authorities discover his conspiracy against the emperor Constantine. Maxentius raises a large army to move into Gaul, but Constantine assembles forces for a counterattack (see 311 A.D.).
Pope Marcellus II dies at Rome and is succeeded by a cleric who will reign briefly as Eusebius.
Persia's late Sassanian king Hormizd II is succeeded by his son, who was born last year after Hormizd's death, is proclaimed king by the nobles in preference to his older brothers, will take personal control of the government at age 16 after a regency, and will reign until 379 as Shapur II, standing up to Rome's legions and bringing his empire to the height of its power.
The Roman emperor Constantine at Trier orders the minting of a new coin, the solidus, in an effort to offset the declining value of the denarius and bring stability to the imperial currency by restoring a gold standard. Civil servants and soldiers are to be paid in gold, taxes to be levied in gold and silver coins, with one pound of solid gold to yield 72 solidi. The solidus will later be known as the bezant and will continue to be minted without change in weight or purity for about 700 years.
The Roman emperor Galerius Valerius Maximanus dies in May after the despot Maxentius has driven him out of Italy. The emperor Constantine has plotted to kill his rivals and begins a march on Rome (see 312 A.D.).
China's third Jin dynasty emperor Huaidi dies after a 5-year reign and is succeeded by his brother Ye, who will reign until 316 as the emperor Mindi, but Hun (Xiong Nu [Hsiung-nu]) invaders from the north pillage the capital city of Luoyang, slaughtering 30,000.
The edict of Sardica issued in April by the Roman co-emperor Galerius Valerius Maximanus in the Balkans grants tolerance to Christians.
A brief vacancy in the papal throne at Rome ends with the election of a cleric who will reign until 314 as Melchiades.
The Battle of Milvian Bridge (or Saxa Rubra) four miles north of Rome October 28 gives the emperor Constantine a victory over the despot Maxentius. He has crossed the Alps via Mont Cénis, the bridge collapses, many men drown, and Constantine kills Maxentius the next day, making himself absolute master of the western Roman Empire.
Constantine will claim to have seen a vision in the sky of a luminous cross bearing the words "In hoc signo vinces" ("By this sign thou shalt conquer") during the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. His military success attracts converts to Christianity, and he will adopt the words as a motto and have the letters X and P (the first letters of the Greek word Christ) emblazoned on the shields of his legions, but his motive may be political.
The Roman emperor Licinius marries his co-emperor Constantine's sister Constantia and unifies the eastern empire under his rule by eliminating the Caesar Maximin Daia April 30 at Adrianopole, but he and Constantine will soon have a falling out (see 314 A.D.).
The emperors Constantine and Licinius accept Christianity, they agree on a policy of religious toleration, their Edict of Milan February 3 returns property confiscated from Christians, and it ends 10 years of persecution in which thousands of Christians have been killed.
The Battle of Cibalae October 8 gives the Roman emperor Constantine a victory over his co-emperor Licinius, who loses all of the Balkans except for Thrace.
Pope Melchiades (or Miltiades) dies at Rome in January, having reigned since 311, and is succeeded January 31 by a cleric who will reign until his death in 335 as Sylvester I.
The Arch of Constantine is completed near the Flavian Amphitheater at Rome by the Roman emperor to commemorate his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge in 312. The hastily-built arch incorporates sculptures from earlier buildings, including part of a battle frieze. Constantine also completes a great basilica begun by Maxentius and installs a large statue of himself inside it.
The former emperor Diocletian dies in his palace at Salona on the Dalmatian coast at age 71 (approximate).
China's fourth Jin dynasty emperor Mindi dies after a 5-year reign and is succeeded by his son Rui, who will reign until 322 as the emperor Yuandi, but northern and southern dynasties will divide China from 317 to 589.
The Roman emperor Constantine gives his eldest son Flavius Julius Crispus the title Caesar March 1 and makes him titular ruler of Gaul.
The earliest historically verified reference to tea is recorded, although the Chinese have been drinking the beverage for centuries.
The Gupta dynasty begins to unify northern India after 5 centuries of division. Chandragupta, king of Magaha, founds the dynasty.
Greek philosopher Pappus of Alexandria, 30, observes an eclipse of the sun October 18 and writes a commentary on The Great Astronomer (Almagest) by the 2nd century astronomer-geographer-mathematician Ptolemy.
The emperor Constantine issues a proclamation July 3 making Sunday a day of rest throughout the Roman Empire. Jews continue to observe the Sabbath on Saturday, and Constantine himself continues to worship the ancient Roman sun god, Apollo, despite his acceptance of Christianity.
The emperor Constantine assigns convicts to grind Rome's flour in a move to hold back the rising price of food in an empire whose population has shrunk as a result of plague (see 309 A.D.). Barbarian peoples have used waterpower for years and pressure mounts to use such power in Rome, where rulers have opposed it in the past lest it cause unemployment.
The Battle of Adrianople July 3 gives the Roman emperor Constantine's son Crispus Caesar a triumph over the naval forces of Licinius. The co-emperor has angered Constantine with his anti-Christian policy, and he loses again September 18 at Chrysopolis in Anatolia.
The poetic work Banquet (Thalia) by the Libyan-born Egyptian Christian priest Arius, 73, expresses the doctrine that Jesus of Nazareth was not of the same substance as God but rather had a finite nature. An ascetic who leads a Christian community near Alexandria, Arius comes under suspicion of heresy and writes in August to his former schoolmate Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, asking for support. Eusebius writes to other bishops, and when Arius is condemned in September Eusebius gives him safe haven and sponsors a synod at Bithynia in October which nullifies Arius's excommunication (see Council of Nicaea, 325 A.D.).
The Roman emperor Constantine's son Crispus Caesar commands his father's fleet and wins a major victory in the Hellespont. Constantine captures his co-emperor Licinius and has him executed; having defeated Licinius in a series of military and naval engagements, he reunites the empire, ruling singlehanded from the Clyde River to the Euphrates.
The empire will recover from the chaos of the 3rd century under Constantine. External peace, internal unity, a new coinage supported by confiscated treasure, and state revenues supported by a new, simplified taxation system will bring prosperity to the great cities of the empire. Jobs will become hereditary, even in the female line (if one marries a baker's daughter, one must become a baker).
The emperor Constantine bans pagan sacrifices and pillages pagan temples. He forbids Jews to own Christian slaves but does not stop Christians from owning Jewish slaves.
The Persian king Shapur II takes personal command of his realm at age 16, having reigned under a regency since 309.
The Council of Nicaea is the first ecumenical council of the Church. Summoned by the Roman emperor Constantine in May, it includes two legates sent by Pope Sylvester I (who does not attend himself) and supports the orthodox doctrine of homoousion that God and Christ are "of the same substance" (see 323 A.D.). Bishop Alexander of Alexandria testifies in behalf of the doctrine and is supported by his deacon Athanasius, 32, but the Alexandrian priest Arius has maintained the opposite view, and Eusebius of Nicomedia leads the opposition to homoousion, refusing to sign the council's anathema condemning Arius. The Nicene Creed adopted by the council declares that the relative members of the Trinity (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit) are equal. Eusebius renews his alliance with Arius after the council, Constantine exiles him to Gaul, but his friendship with the emperor's sister Constantia will help him prevail, and Constantine and his successors will move increasingly toward Arianism despite orthodox Church teachings (see 335 A.D.).
Nonfiction: Ecclesiastical History and an historical Chronicle by the Palestinian scholar and theologian Eusebius, 61, bishop of Caesarea and another supporter of Arius.
The Roman emperor Constantine travels to Rome to celebrate the 20th anniversary of his accession but while en route at Pola he executes his older son, Crispus Caesar, possibly on charges of adultery; Constantine's second wife, Fausta, has borne him three younger sons, she has persuaded him to eliminate his son by his first wife, and he has Fausta herself suffocated in her bath later in the year.
The emperor Constantine's mother, Helena, tells him that he must atone for executing his son and wife by building churches. She claims to have discovered the Holy Cross and the Holy Sepulchre (Jesus's tomb) in Jerusalem; the Church of the Holy Sepulchre will be consecrated there in 335, and Constantine will build the first Church of St. Peter at Rome.
Alexandria's patriarch Bishop Alexander dies and is succeeded by his deacon Athanasius, who will gain support from the popes at Rome in his persecution of Arian "heretics."
Constantinople is dedicated May 11 as the new capital of the Roman Empire. The emperor Constantine has spent 4 years building the city on the site of ancient Byzantium (see 658 B.C.); having chosen the site for its strategic location (it is a seaport with easy access to Anatolia and the Danube Valley, both rich sources of revenue), he vows to make it even more splendid than Rome.
The Romans begin pulling troops out of Britain and abandon work on the 72-mile Hadrian's Wall begun in 122. The wall includes at least 16 forts.
The Roman emperor Constantine convenes a synod at Tyre to depose and exile Alexandria's patriarch Bishop Athanasius but Athanasius refutes specific charges at Tyre and refuses to recognize the synod as a general council of the Church. Constantine convenes another synod at Jerusalem to reinstate the Alexandrian priest Arius, who was declared a heretic at the Council of Nicaea 10 years ago (see 336 A.D.).
Jerusalem's Church of the Holy Sepulchre is consecrated September 17 on the site (discovered 7 years ago) of Christ's tomb on Golgotha (see 326 A.D.).
Pope Sylvester I dies at Rome in December after a 21-year reign. He is succeeded by a cleric who will reign until November of next year as Marcus (or Mark).
The Alexandrian priest Arius collapses in the street at Constantinople and dies at age 86 (approximate). Arians and the Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius meet with the Roman emperor Constantine at Constantinople. Athanasius is accused of threatening to interfere with the grain exports from Egypt, and he is exiled without any formal trial to the Rhineland, where he will remain until after the emperor's death next year.
Pope Marcus (or Mark) dies at Rome in November after an 11-month reign. No successor is immediately found (see 337 A.D.).
The Roman emperor Constantine dies at Naissus in Moesia May 22 at age 49 after a deathbed baptism (he converted to Christianity in 313, and although he has continued to worship the Roman sun god Apollo, the growth of Christianity as the dominant religion of the empire is due chiefly to him). He is succeeded by three sons born to his late wife, Fausta—Constantine II, Constans, and Constantius.
Persia's Shapur II sends his troops across the Tigris to recover Armenia and Mesopotamia from the Romans. Rome will war indecisively with Persia for the next 24 years (but see 364 A.D.).
A 4-month papal vacancy ends February 6 with the election of a Rome-born cleric who will reign until his death in 352 as Julius I.
Persia's Shapur II begins a widespread persecution of Christians, ordering forcible conversions to the state religion, Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism), lest the Christians disrupt his realm while he is away fighting the Romans for Armenia and Mesopotmia.
The Roman emperor Constantius renews his late father's banishment of the Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, but the emperor Constans at Rome provides protection (see 336 A.D.; 339 A.D.).
Pope Julius I gives refuge at Rome to the Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, who was deposed and expelled from his see by the synod of Tyre 4 years ago. Eusebius of Nicomedia is made bishop of Constantinople while another Arian succeeds Athanasius as bishop of Alexandria under the name Gregory.
The Roman co-emperor Constantine II is killed in battle with his younger brother Constans at Aqileia in northern Italy. Constans has his troops at Constantinople put to death all male relatives except two young nephews, Gallus and Julian; he and his brother Constantius then divide the empire, the latter controlling the east with the addition of Thrace.
Pope Julius I inveighs against Arianism at the Council of Rome, reaffirming the position that has cost Alexandria's Bishop Athanasius his see.
Persecuted Christians in Mesopotamia die by the thousands as the co-emperor Constantius reverses the tolerant policies of his late father.
Eusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of Constantinople, presides over a synod at Antioch where a creed is adopted that omits the homoousion clause that was included in the Nicaean Creed of 325.
Coptic Christianity is introduced into Ethiopia by the Syrian apostle Frumentius (Abba Salama in the Amharic language). He and his colleague Aedesius were captured by Ethiopians a year or two ago and have become civil servants at the court of the Aksumite king Ezana. A variant of their communion will become the state religion.
Pope Julius I tries to unite Western bishops against Arianism by convoking Council of Sardica (later Sofia), which acknowledges the pope's supreme authority and grants him the right to judge cases involving the legal possession of episcopal sees, but only Western and Egyptian bishops attend, and Arianism remains strong (see 346 A.D.).
The Roman co-emperor Constans uses his influence to secure the return of the former Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius to Egypt, where the next 10 years will be a period of peace and prosperity in which Athanasius will compile documents relating to his expulsion and return under the title Apology Against the Arians.
The Roman co-emperor Constans is murdered in Gaul; his military commander Magnentius has engineered a coup d'état and usurps the western empire, and the death of Constans precipitates a period of civil war.
Philosopher Pappus of Alexandria dies at age 60 (age and year approximate), having written a guide to Greek geometry.
The Chinese "mother of calligraphy" Wei Furen dies after a career in which she has been honored in the Book of One Hundred Beauties, established the art of beautiful writing, and inspired the country's most prominent calligraphers.
The Roman emperor Constantius II proclaims his 25-year-old cousin Flavius Claudius Constantius Caesar at Sirmium March 1 and arranges his marriage to the emperor's sister Constantia. Raised as a strict Christian, the young man will be known as Gallus Caesar (but see 354 A.D.).
The Battle of Mursa in the Balkans September 28 ends in defeat for the usurper Magnentius at the hands of Constantius II, who is outnumbered by Magnentius but whose heavy cavalry routs the usurper's left wing, exacting a terrible toll. The legionnaires of Constantius sustain even greater losses (30,000 as compared to 24,000) and Constantius offers a compromise, Magnentius refuses, and Constantius pursues him into Gaul; the combined losses in what will be remembered as the bloodiest battle of the century cripple the military strength of the Roman Empire.
The Roman emperor Constantius II invades Italy in purusuit of the usurper Magnentius, who withdraws his legions to Gaul (see 351 A.D.; 353 A.D.).
Pope Julius I dies April 12 after a 15-year reign in which he has made himself the chief opponent of Arianism. He is succeeded May 17 by a Rome-born cleric who immediately writes to the emperor Constantius requesting a council at Aquileia to discuss the former Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, who opposes the Arian belief to which the emperor subscribes (see 355 A.D.). The new pope will reign until his death in 366 as Liberius.
The Roman legions of Constantius II defeat the usurper Magnentius, who commits suicide in Gaul August 11 in order to avoid capture. Constantius II becomes sole emperor and will reign until his death in 361.
The Roman emperor Constantius II recalls his legate (and brother-in-law) Gallus Caesar to Constantinople after hearing unfavorable reports about him. Gallus has suppressed revolts in Palestine and central Anatolia, and he has kept the Persians at bay, but the emperor strips him of his powers and later has him executed.
Alamanni tribesmen cross the Rhine and wreak havoc in eastern Gaul.
Pope Liberius refuses to sign a condemnation of the Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius imposed at Milan by the Roman emperor Constantius II. The emperor exiles Liberius to Beroea in Greece and replaces him with an Arian archdeacon who will reign as the antipope Felix II.
The religious hermit Antony of Egypt dies at his hermitage near the Red Sea in mid-January at age 103 (approximate), having preached against Arianism and tried to codify guidelines for monastic life. The Roman emperor Constantius II issues a decree February 19 closing all pagan temples in the Roman empire and ordering the banishment once again of the anti-Arian patriarch of Alexandria, Athanasius. He tries to have him arrested during a vigil service, but Athanasius withdraws into Upper Egypt, taking refuge in monasteries and friendly houses where he will complete his theological work Four Orations Against the Arians and defend his conduct in the Apology to Constantius and Apology for His Flight.
The emperor Constantius II visits Rome for the first time April 28; his cousin Julian defeats the Alamanni at Strasbourg August 25 and drives them back behind the Rhine.
Pope Liberius travels to Sirmium late in the year and agrees to sign documents that effectively undo the Nicene Creed (which has implicitly disavowed Arianism) and to sever his relationship with the former Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius, who is replaced as bishop of Alexandria by his Arian opponent George of Cappadocia (see 356 A.D.; 358 A.D.).
Persia's Shapur II sends an emissary to the Roman emperor Constantius II with gifts and a letter wrapped in white silk: "I, Shapur, king of kings, partner of the stars, brother of the sun and the moon, to Constantius Caesar my brother send much greeting. Because . . . the language of truth ought to be unrestrained and free, and because men in the highest rank ought only to say what they mean, I will reduce my propositions into a few words . . . Even your own ancient records bear witness that my ancestors possessed all the country up to the Strymn and the frontier of Macedonia. And these lands it is fitting that I who (not to speak arrogantly) am superior to those ancient kings in magnificence, and in all eminent virtues, should now reclaim. but I am at all times thoughtful to remember that, from my earliest youth, I have never done anything to repent of." Constantius tactfully refuses to cede any territories, and Shapur marches into northern Mesopotamia, enjoying considerable success (but see 363 A.D.).
The emperor Constantius II recalls Pope Liberius to Rome, where the pope receives a joyous welcome from Christians. The antipope Felix II flees to Porto, the emperor decrees that the pope and antipope shall reign jointly, and although the decree is disregarded it decreases the true pope's prestige.
The Roman emperor Constantius II convenes a great council at Arminium (later Rimini) in October to resolve the crisis over Arianism in the Church, but neither Pope Liberius nor the antipope Felix II is invited. Some 400 bishops of the Western Roman Empire attend, while Eastern bishops attend a meeting held simultaneously at Seleucia (later Silifke). Most of the bishops at Arminium subscribe to the Nicaean Creed of 325. But the Arians among them have the emperor's support. They manage to reverse the majority decision, and the orthodox bishops remaining at Arminium are forced to recant the Nicaean Creed and embrace an Arian creed formulated at Nice in Thracia (but see 361 A.D.).
Huns invade Europe by the thousands, spreading terror as they take over territories held for generations by Alans, Heruls, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths (see 200 A.D.; 372 A.D.).
Japan begins a 30-year period of great influence in Korea.
Roman authorities in Britain export wheat to supply the legions on the Rhine; they have encouraged production of wheat for that purpose.
The Roman emperor Constantius II dies at Mopsucrenae, Honorias, near Tarsus in Cilicia November 3 at age 44 as he marches to join his cousin Flavius Claudius Julianus, 30. Constantinople acknowledges Julianus as sole head of the empire, and he enters the city December 11, beginning an 18-month reign as the emperor Julian.
Constantinople enforces a strict licensing system for physicians.
The new Roman emperor Julian tries to organize a pagan church and substitute it for Christianity. Pope Liberius repudiates the Arian creed, annuls the decrees issued at Arminium 2 years ago, and declares that the Council of Arminium had no authority to issue decrees. George of Cappadocia is murdered by an Alexandrian mob December 24 and Athanasius returns to his native city in triumph, resuming his see.
The Alexandrian patriarch Athanasius convenes a council at which he appeals for unity among people of the same faith who may differ in terminology, but the Roman emperor Julian orders Athanasius to leave Alexandria. He will remain in exile in Upper Egypt until after Julian's death next year.
The Roman emperor Julian leads a large army into Persia, killing all who resist him, and reaches the gates of Ctesiphon on the Tigris before sustaining a mortal wound in a skirmish June 26. The last champion of polytheism, he is succeeded by the captain of his imperial bodyguard Flavius Iovianus, 32, who will reign for 7 months as the emperor Jovian.
The Roman emperor Jovian signs a humiliating treaty with the Persian shah Shapur II, yielding the kingdom of Armenia plus four other Roman provinces and agreeing to a 30-year truce (see 337 A.D.). Jovian is found dead in February at Dadastana en route back to Constantinople and is succeeded by the Pannonian general Valentinian, 42, who appoints his 36-year-old brother Valens co-emperor. Valentinian I rules from Caledonia to northwestern Africa, Valens from the Danube east to the Persian border.
Greek mathematician Theon of Alexandria, 29, observes a solar eclipse June 16 and a lunar eclipse November 25. Possibly a member of the Museum established as a seat of higher learning in 300 B.C., Theon will gain some renown for his versio of Euclid's Elements and his commentaries on Ptolemy's Almagest.
Pope Liberius dies at his native Rome September 24 after a 14-year reign and is succeeded October 1 by a Rome-born deacon who will reign until 384 as Damasus I.
The eastern Roman emperor Valens orders the expulsion of the Alexandrian bishop Athanasius from his see, but instead of going into exile Athanasius, now about 73, moves to the outskirts of Alexandria until local authorities persuade Valens to change his mind.
The antipope Felix II dies after a 9-year reign, ending the double occupancy of the papacy and leaving Damasus I in sole possession of the papal throne.
The eastern Roman emperor Valens builds a pontoon bridge across the Danube and drives Visigothic forces farther north, where they will come under pressure from the advancing Huns.
Picts and Scots cross Hadrian's Wall and attack Roman forces in Britain. Pict, Scot, and Saxon tribesmen reach London and plunder the town, but the military commander Theodosius next year will drive them out of Roman Britain.
The Visigothic chieftain Fritigern (Fridigern, or Frithugaims) becomes king amidst hostilities with his rival Athanaric (Athanareiks), who engages in battle with the eastern Roman emperor Valens.
The new Visigothic king Fritigern adopts Arianism, a form of Christianity favored by the Roman emperor Valens that rejects the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. His rival Athanaric will be the last Gothic king to follow the traditional Germanic pagan religion Asatru.
The neo-Persian Empire attains the zenith of its power under Shapur II as the Romans and Persians renew their wars. Hostilities will continue for the next 5 years.
The Huns begin new incursions into the West (see 360 A.D.). They defeat the Alans and the Heruls, destroy the Ostrogothic Empire of Hermanric, absorb the Ostrogoths for a time, and rout the Visigoths from the Dneister River (see 410 A.D.).
Buddhism comes into Korea from China.
The patriarch Athanasius dies at his native Alexandria May 2 at age 79 (approximate).
The people of Milan astonish Ambrose, governor of Aemilia-Liguria, by acclaiming him bishop. Now 35, Ambrose is the second son of the former prefect of Gaul who died shortly after Ambrose was born at Trier. He was raised at Rome by his widowed mother and elder sister Marcellina, a nun, and has been chosen to avoid a disputed election, going from unbaptized layman to bishop in just 8 days. He will serve until his death in 397, establishing a reputation as scholar, hymn writer, and creative thinker whose ideas will provide the paradigm for medieval church-state relations.
The emperor Valentinian moves into Illyrium to repel an invasion of the Quadi and Sermatians, attends a meeting on the Danube, and becomes so enraged that he dies in a fit of apoplexy November 17 at age 53. Extreme cruelty has marked his 11-year reign but he has founded schools and provided physicians to serve the poor of Constantinople. His brother Valens continues to rule in the east; his son Gratian, now 16, takes over the government at Trier, but ministers of the late emperor, wishing to retain the loyalty of the Illyrian army and fearing a usurper, proclaim Valentinian's 4-year-old son emperor Valentinian II with his mother, Justina, as regent. Gratian accepts the arrangement but it is Justina who will rule the western empire.
The eastern Roman emperor Valens permits the Visigothic chieftain Fritigern and his people to cross the Danube from Dacia (later Romania) and settle on Roman soil in Lower Moesia on condition that they provide soldiers to the legions. Fritigern wants to escape the Huns, who have conquered the Ostrogoths. Valens makes no such arrangement with Fritigern's rival Athanaric, who is defeated by Hunnic forces and flees to what later will be called Transylvania, but many of Athanaric's followers will also make their way across the river. The Romans fail to disarm the Visigoths, bungle administration of the refugees, and mistreat them, taking some of their children as slaves, forcing able-bodied men to serve in the legions (see famine, 377).
Famine in the Lower Moesian region newly occupied by Visigoths south of the Danube takes a fearsome toll, Fritigern and his followers appeal for help, but they quickly find that the eastern emperor Valens's governors Lupicins and Maximus regard them as second-class citizens. Little help is forthcoming, and thousands starve to death, driving the Visigoths to take desperate measures for survival (see politics [Battle of Adrianople], 378 A.D.).
The emperor Gratian completely defeats the southernmost branch of the Alamanni at Argenatria, but the Battle of Adrianople August 9 ends in the worst disaster for a Roman army since Teutoberger Wald in 9 A.D. Confident of his ability to drive back marauding "barbarians," the eastern emperor Valens has marched his troops nine miles in stifling heat, but his 40,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry are far outnumbered by a Visigoth-Ostrogoth force of 50,000 infantry and 50,000 cavalry under the command of Fritigern. Both sides wear armor and carry steel swords, both have the support of trained archers, many of Valens's soldiers are themselves barbarians. Mounted Visigoths attack the Romans' right flank, beginning a slaughter in which the Roman army loses two-thirds of its men. The battlefield is awash in blood, and the dead include the emperor, who dies at age 50 (approximate) after a 14-year reign. Fritigern avenges the loss suffered by the Goths at the Battle of Naissus in 269; Valens has commanded the greatest army of his day, and the rout of his foot soldiers presages a revolution in the art of war: the power of light and heavy cavalry will determine European military, social, and political development for the next 1,000 years.
The emperor Gratian summons his general Flavius Theodosius, 32, to succeed Valens as emperor in the east. A veteran of many campaigns with his late father, a successful general in Britain who was executed at Carthage 2 years ago on charges of conspiring against Valens, the new co-emperor has fought the Picts in Britain and defeated the Sarmatians in Moesia.
The emperor Gratian elevates Theodosius January 19, giving him the title co-Augustus for the east with power over all the eastern provinces. Theodosius comes to terms with the Visigoths, settles them in the Balkans as military allies (foederati), and will reign until 395.
Persia's 10th Sassanian king Shapur II dies at age 70 after a 69-year reign in which he has humbled the Romans, conquered Armenia, transferred multitudes of people from western lands to Susiana (Khuzistan), rebuilt Susa, and founded Nishapur. His brother has been king of Adiabene, the nobles place him on the throne, and he will reign until 383 as Ardashir II.
The Visigothic chieftain Fritigern dies after ravaging the Balkans; his rival Athanaric becomes king of the entire Gothic nation.
The Visigothic chieftain Athanaric becomes the first foreign king to visit the new Roman capital of Constantinople. He negotiates a peace treaty with the new co-emperor Theodosius that makes his people foederati in a state within a state, but dies 2 weeks later after an 18-year reign in which he has been undisputed king of all the Goths for just 1 year. The peace will continue until Theodosius's death in 395.
Roman legions in Britain proclaim a new emperor, Magnus Maximus, who seizes Gaul. The emperor Gratian's troops desert him at Lutetia (Paris); he flees to Lyons and is delivered over to one of the generals who have risen in revolt against Rome. After an 8-year reign in which Christianity has become the dominant religion in the empire, Gratian is assassinated August 25 at Lugdunum at age 25, leaving a young widow, Laeta. Panonia and Africa maintain their allegiance to the emperor Valentinian II, now 12, whose mother, Justina, rules in his name. Theodosius makes no effort to avenge the death of Gratian but cedes Dacia and Macedonia to Valentinian.
Gratian's younger brother Valentinian II and his co-emperor Theodosius recognize the Roman general Magnus Clemens Maximus as Augustus; he has led the insurrection in Britain and Gaul, he receives recognition in Britain, Gaul, and the Hispanic provinces, and he begins a 5-year reign as co-emperor.
Persians depose their 11th Sassanian king Ardashir II after a 4-year reign.
Pagan members of the Roman Senate appeal for tolerance, but although their spokesman Quintus Aurelius Symmachus is a relative of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, Ambrose uses his influence to have the appeal rejected.
The Christian prophet Jerome writes a letter to Eustochium, daughter of the ascetic Paula (see 380 A.D.). "I need not speak of the drawbacks of marriage," he says, and then proceeds to enumerate them, listing pregnancy, the crying of infants, the anguish caused by a rival, household chores. He praises marriage, "but only because it gives me virgins. I gather the rose from the thorns, the gold from the earth, the pearl from the shell," and tells her specifically how to remain a virgin. To avoid all temptations she must avoid wine and eat only the smallest and simplest meals, because "the rumbling of our intestines . . . the emptiness of our stomach . . . [and] the inflammation of our lungs . . . [are] the only way of protecting chastity." Do not visit the homes of the rich and look upon the ways of luxury, he advises, but rather read much, fast often, wear the meanest clothes, remain at home, and weep for your sins each night. But few Christians follow such advice.
Pope Damasus I dies at his native Rome December 11 at age 80 (approximate) after an 18-year reign during which Latin has been introduced as the language of the mass. Having restored the city's catacombs and built or restored many of the city's churches, he is succeeded by a Rome-born deacon who will reign until 399 as Siricius.
The Roman synod exiles the prophet Jerome, who has incorporated ideas first propounded by the ancient Roman statesman Cicero. He departs for Egypt, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem, accompanied by the Christian ascetic Paula, who will edit Jerome's translation of the Bible, which will become the Latin Vulgate.
The Roman co-emperor Magnus Maximus invades Italy; Valentinian II and his mother, Justina, flee to Thessalonika, where Justina will die next year.
Rome and Persia partition Armenia between them.
The Roman co-emperor Magnus Maximus is defeated by Theodosius July 28 at Aquileia. He is subsequently murdered while Theodosius devotes himself to gluttony and voluptuous living. Valentinian II, now 17, continues as co-emperor.
Persia's Sassanian king Shapur III dies after a reign in which he has partitioned Armenia with Rome; he is succeeded by his brother, who will reign until 399 as Bahram IV.
Ambrose, bishop of Milan, rebukes the co-emperor Theodosius for having punished a bishop who had burnt a synagogue.
The Armenian cleric Isaac, 43, is named catholicos (spiritual head) of the country's Apostolic (Orthodox) Church (see 301 A.D.). Educated in the Hellenistic culture of Asia Minor and at Constantinople, he became a monk after his wife died, turned his home into a monastery, and has gained his position with support from the country's Persian overlords (year approximate). Isaac will tighten clerical discipline and enforce celibacy on Armenia's bishops, gain Constantinople's recognition of Armenian patriarchal rights, establish schools and churches, and create a distinctive Armenian form of Christianity that is free of direct Greek Orthodox control (see 432 A.D.).
An insurrection in Macedonia angers the eastern Roman emperor Theodosius, who has 3,000 to 7,000 rebels massacred at Thessalonika. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, forces Theodosius to perform public penance December 25.
The Roman emperor Theodosius returns to Constantinople, leaving Italy and Illyria under the rule of Valentinian II.
Christians at Alexandria go on an iconoclastic rampage, smashing pagan idols throughout the city and destroying the Temple of Serapis. The co-emperor Theodosius has ordered that all non-Christian works be eliminated.
Flames destroy the great Library of Alexandria, established in the Mouseion in 275 B.C. and long considered one of the wonders of the ancient world, but while some will blame Christians the evidence for that will remain circumstantial. Among the items lost in the fire are invaluable works of science, including parchments by the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos asserting that the Earth orbits the sun (see Ptolemy, 140 A.D.; Copernicus, 1543 A.D.), and dozens of dramatic works by Sophocles and Euripides.
The Roman co-emperor Valentinian II is murdered May 15 at Vienne in Gaul at the instigation of his Frankish general Arbogast who sets up the grammarian and rhetorician Eugenius as emperor. The death of Valentinian at age 21 enrages the eastern Roman emperor Theodosius, who marches against Eugenius (see 394 A.D.).
The Roman emperor Eugenius is killed in battle September 6 by the barbarian legions of the emperor Theodosius (see 392 A.D.). The Frankish general Arbogast escapes into the mountains but commits suicide 2 days later.
The Roman emperor Theodosius the Great dies at Milan January 17 at age 49 and his empire is split into eastern and western empires. His favorite niece, Serena, has married his master of troops, Stilicho, a man of Vandal ancestry who masterminds the succession. His son Arcadius has married Eudoxia, daughter of the Frankish leader Bauto, and will rule from Constantinople until his death in 408; Arcadius's younger brother Flavius Honorius rules from Milan under the dominance of Stilicho, but both Arcadius and Honorius are immature and their ministers hate each other. The boys' mother died in childbirth last year, leaving also a 7-year-old daughter, Galla Placidia, who was sent by her father to Rome, where she has been in the care of Serena.
The split in the Roman Empire is considered temporary but will prove permanent.
The Roman province of Greece explodes in violence following the death of the emperor Theodosius; foederati (Germanic irregulars under Roman command) rebel against the injustices they have suffered for years, and they make a well-born 24-year-old western Goth (Visigoth) named Alaric their leader, raising him on their shields and acclaiming him king (see 397 A.D.).
An estimated 330,000 acres of farmland lie abandoned in Rome's Campania, partly as a consequence of malaria from mosquitoes bred in swampy areas, but mostly because imprudent agriculture has ruined the land.
The Roman master of troops Stilicho drives Alaric and his Visigoths out of Greece after a 2-year campaign (but see 401 A.D.).
The Scottish apostle Ninian establishes a church at Whithorn to help him in evangelizing the southern Picts. A British chieftain's son, Ninian has made a pilgrimage to Rome and been consecrated a bishop after 15 years of study.
Ambrose, bishop of Milan, dies at Milan after a 23-year reign in which he has dominated the political and cultural life of his time.
The 13-year-old western Roman emperor Flavius Honorius marries Maria, daughter of the general Stilicho, whose wife, Serena, is well-known for her scholarship.
John, bishop of Constantinople, receives a delegation of clergymen who want to close the pagan temples at Gaza where worshipers are openly defying the law. The bishop works through a eunuch who has great power over the emperor Arcadius, and within a week an imperial Constitution is issued closing the temples, but the official appointed to execute the order is bribed to spare the principal temple of Marneum (see 400 A.D.).
Persia's Sassanian king Bahram IV dies after an 11-year reign.
Pope Siricius dies at his native Rome November 26 after a 15-year reign in which he has commanded celibacy for priests, asserted papal authority over the entire Western Church, and threated to impose sanctions against those who do not follow his dictates. Siricius is succeeded by a cleric who will reign until 401 as Anastasius I.
Nonfiction: Confessions by the Numidian-born cleric-philosopher Augustine, 44, says, "How small are grains of sand! Yet if enough are placed in a ship they sink it." Converted to Christianity in 386 by the late bishop Ambrose of Milan, Augustine lived with a concubine from 377 to 385, returned to his native North Africa soon afterward, has served for the past 4 years as bishop of Hippo, and will continue in that position for the next 31 years, preaching ideas borrowed from those of the ancient Roman statesman Cicero (see 426 A.D.).
Bishops from Gaza arrive at Constantinople to ask the eastern Roman emperor Arcadius that he close the pagan temple at Marneum (see 398 A.D.). Advised to approach the pious empress Eudoxia via her eunuch, they find her sympathetic. She presents their case to her husband, but Arcadius says the people of Gaza have a good record of paying their taxes promptly and refuses to create trouble there. The bishops, who include Mark, tell Eudoxia that if she can change the emperor's mind God will reward her by making the child that she is carrying a boy who will reign for many years. A boy, Theodosius, is born and proclaimed Augustus. Eudoxia advises the bishops to draw up a petition containing their requests, secure places outside the church door, and present the petition to the man who carries her son out of the church after his baptism. The man is part of the scheme, he puts the document in the child's hand, and he announces that the boy has given his approval. Arcadius is annoyed by the text of the petition but is too weak to refuse his assent; a new Constitution in accord with the petition is drawn up in the name of the two Augusti.
301 A.D.–325 A.D. 326 A.D.–350 A.D. 351 A.D.–375 A.D. 376 A.D.–400 A.D.
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