1956 - Political Events

Political Events

Nikita Khruschev denounces the late Josef Stalin and his policies February 25 at the 20th Communist Party Conference, saying, "Lenin used severe methods only in the most necessary cases, when the exploiting classes were still in existence and were vigorously opposing the revolution . . . Stalin, on the other hand, used extreme methods and mass repression at a time when the revolution was already victorious . . . Instead of proving his political correctness and mobilizing the masses, he often chose the path of repression and physical annihilation, not only against actual enemies, but also against individuals who had not committed any crimes against the Party and the Soviet government." Moscow dissolves the 8½-year-old Cominform April 17 in a move toward reconciliation with the Western powers, but Soviet authorities crack down in the autumn on rebellious Poles and Hungarians.

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Soviet troops crushed uprisings in Poland and Hungary, a reminder that satellite nations were puppets of Moscow.

The Polaris missile developed at the Woods Hole, Mass., Oceanographic Institute can be launched underwater from submarines and carry a nuclear warhead.

The U-2A spy plane built by Lockheed Aircraft for surveillance missions carries no armament, has a maximum speed of 494 miles per hour (and a cruising speed of 460), an initial range of 2,220 miles, and an initial service ceiling of more than 55,000 feet. Michigan-born engineer Clarence Leonard "Kelly" Johnson, 46, has designed the U-2, but advanced Soviet radar can detect U-2 overflights (see 1960).

The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission explodes the world's first airborne hydrogen bomb May 21 as it conducts a new series of nuclear tests in the Pacific (see 1954; Britain, 1957).

Polish workers riot at Poznan June 28 to protest social and economic conditions under the communist regime. More than 100 demonstrators are killed as the militia moves in to suppress the riots, trials of the rioters end abruptly October 10, several Polish communists demand removal of Soviet officers from the Polish Army October 16, but Polish and Soviet frontier troops exchange fire as former Soviet officer Marshal Konstantin K. Rokossovsky, 60, orders his Polish troops to take positions near Warsaw. Former Polish Workers' Party Secretary General Wladyslaw Gomulka, 51, has been freed and rehabilitated after 5 years in prison and becomes first secretary of Poland's Communist Party October 21. Soviet troop withdrawal from Poland begins October 25, but several Soviet divisions from East Germany have entered Poland a few days earlier and remain. Marshal Rokossovsky plots to overthrow Party Secretary Gomulka, Polish militia using tear gas suppress attacks on Soviet Army installations at Liegnitz, the Soviet military coup against Gomulka is aborted by betrayal of his plans, Rokossovsky returns to Moscow October 28, and the Polish prelate Stepan Cardinal Wyszinski, 55, is released from custody October 29.

Hungarian university students meet at Budapest October 22 and put together a list of 16 demands while expressing solidarity with the Polish rebels. They post the petition during the night on trees and walls and at tram stops throughout the city, and make plans to present their demands to the minister of internal affairs, who is also the head of the secret police. Students mob Bem Square beginning at 4:30 in the afternoon of October 23 as the ministry of internal affairs retracts its denial of permission to hold a rally, truckloads of workers arrive, and the crowd moves toward Parliament Square two miles away as its numbers swell to more than 100,000 men and women demanding democratic government, the return of former premier Imre Nagy to power, withdrawal of Soviet troops, and the release of Jozsef Cardinal Mindszenty, who has been held in solitary confinement since the end of 1948. Imre Nagy is restored as premier October 24; the Stalinist head of the Communist Party Ernö Gerö is succeeded October 25 by János Kádár, 44, but the revolt begins to spread across Hungary. Marshal Zhukov orders occupation of Hungary after a long debate in the Politburo, where a majority has initially opposed military action. Soviet ordnance contains only intermediate ballistic missiles, they can reach certain strategic areas of southern Europe only if launched from bases in Hungary, and Zhukov insists on having those bases. Moscow responds also to pressure from its allies at Beijing (Peking), who urge suppression of the Hungarian revolution lest world communism disintegrate. Soviet forces withdraw from Budapest beginning October 30, Cardinal Mindszenty is released from prison that day, Premier Nagy goes on the radio to promise Hungarians free elections and a prompt end to one-party dictatorship, Nagy announces Hungary's unilateral withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact November 1, and 16 Soviet divisions move in 3 days later with 2,000 tanks to crush the Hungarian defiance. Politician Gyula Kallai, 46, helps to restore communist rule after the pro-democratic uprising, and Premier Nagy is succeeded by János Kádár, 44, who has been one of his ministers and will continue as premier until 1958 (and then from 1961 to 1965). Cardinal Mindszenty takes refuge in the U.S. embassy at Budapest, where he will occupy the top floor for 15 years, supported by funds from U.S. bishops. The United Nations General Assembly condemns Soviet interference in Hungary November 4 and calls for an investigation, the last rebel stronghold on Csepel Island in the Danube falls to Soviet forces November 14, and the Russians seize Imre Nagy November 22 as he leaves the Yugoslav embassy at Budapest (see 1958). Premier Kádár begins his regime with extravagant promises: abolition of compulsory deliveries of farm produce, abolition of pressure on peasants to enter collectives, a grant of more control to workers' councils in mines and factories, more production of consumer goods, and the like (but see 1957). The Eisenhower administration makes no effort to intervene in Hungary until after the president's reelection; it offers asylum to Hungarian "freedom fighters" November 29. Hungarians stage a general strike in December to protest the János Kádár regime. Nearly 200,000 people emigrate, including some of the country's best minds and talents.

British Royal Air Force cofounder Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard, dies at Chelsea, London, February 10 at age 83; former German field Marshal Erich R. von Leeb at Augsburg April 29 at age 79; former Italian field marshal Pietro Badoglio at Curzano, Italy, October 31 at age 82; former Finnish statesman Juho Kusti Paasikivi at Helsinki December 14 at age 86.

Jordan and Israel accept UN truce proposals January 24, Washington announces January 25 that it is not prepared to sell arms to Israel (which has sought aid to balance Soviet arms shipments to Egypt), the Declaration of Washington issued February 1 by President Eisenhower and Prime Minister Eden reaffirms joint Anglo-American policy in the Mideast urging a settlement of Arab-Israeli differences and a reaffirmation of the 1950 tripartite agreement, Moscow states February 12 that sending U.S. or British troops to the Mideast would violate the UN Charter, Jordan abruptly dismisses the Arab Legion's commander Gen. John B. Glubb March 3 (now 58, "Glubb Pasha" is credited with having made Jordan's army the most efficient in the Mideast, but Jordan has come under Arab pressure to eliminate British influence). A military alliance signed April 21 at Jedda joins Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen, UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld arranges a cease-fire between Israel and Jordan that takes effect April 29, cease-fires with Lebanon and Syria take effect May 1.

Egypt announces June 4 that she will not renew the Suez Canal Company's concession after it expires in 1968, the last British troops leave the Canal base June 13, Soviet Foreign Minister Dmitri Trofimovitch Shepilov, 51, arrives at Cairo June 16, Israel and the Arab states accuse each other July 4 of massing troops on the Israeli border, Washington withdraws its offer to help Egypt build an Aswan Dam on the Nile July 19, President Nasser nationalizes the Canal July 26 under a decree outlawing the company, British and French nationals leave Egypt August 2, the last British families are airlifted out of the Canal Zone August 9, Nasser boycotts an 18-nation London conference on the Suez August 16, and a month later he rejects the conference's recommendation for international control of the canal.

Britain and France submit the Suez dispute to the UN Security Council September 23, Israel launches an all-out attack on Egypt October 19 in reprisal for border raids by fedayeen, Israeli troops invade the Sinai Peninsula October 29 following a secret agreement at Sèvres, outside Paris, between British, French, and Israeli leaders. Israeli forces under the command of Palestine-born 1948 war veteran Ariel (originally Arik) Sharon, 28, capture the strategic Mitla Pass in the Sinai Peninsula but Sharon comes under criticism for his ruthlessness; Israel accepts an October 30 Anglo-French ultimatum calling for a cease-fire and withdrawal of troops 10 miles from the Suez Canal, but Egypt does not accept, French and British planes bomb Egyptian airfields October 31, President Eisenhower says the United States will not support colonial aggression on the part of Britain or France and Washington remains aloof. Jordan refuses to permit RAF planes to use Jordanian bases for operations against Egypt, Gaza falls to British forces November 2, the UN General Assembly adopts a Canadian resolution November 4 to send an international force to the Mideast, but Britain and France abstain. British paratroops land at Port Said November 5 to recover control of the canal that Prime Minister Eden says is vital if his country is not to starve, Moscow threatens to use rockets, possibly armed with nuclear warheads, if Britain and France do not accept a cease-fire in Egypt, the cease-fire begins November 7, but Britain says she will evacuate her troops only upon the arrival of a UN force. Israeli diplomat Abba Eban, now 41, obtains terms from U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles for withdrawal of his country's troops from the Suez (Dulles agrees that Israel will have the right to act in self defense should Egypt again try to interfere with Israeli shipping through the Red Sea). A UN force arrives at the Suez November 15, the UN rejects British and French offers to help clear the canal of scuttled ships December 17 in response to Egyptian objections, the last Anglo-French forces leave Port Said December 22, and a UN fleet begins clearing the canal December 27, but the Suez will remain under Egyptian control.

Cairo-born Palestinian Mohammed "Yasir" Arafat, 27, founds the underground terrorist organization Al Fatah. Raised in Jerusalem after his mother died when he was 4, Arafat studied civil engineering at the University of Cairo, where he headed the Palestinian Students League; Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and other Arab nations have organized the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and will ignore Arafat until 1967.

Sudan proclaims herself an independent democratic republic January 1 and joins the Arab League January 19, increasing membership in the league to nine.

Morocco gains independence from France March 1 and from Spain April 7 (see 1955; 1957).

Tunisia gains independence from France March 20; nationalist Habib (ibn Ali) Bourguiba, 52, founded the radical Neo-Deslour Party in 1934, was imprisoned by the French from 1938 to March 1943, convinced militants to support the Allies, appealed Tunisia's case for independence to the United Nations, and accepts the premiership April 10 at the invitation of the bey of Tunis (see 1957).

Britain grants Gold Coast independence September 18 after 54 years in which the former Asanate (Ashanti) state has been a colony (see Ghana, 1957).

Pakistan proclaims herself an Islamic republic March 23 but remains within the British Commonwealth (see 1947). Her president Iskander Mirza rules with army support (but see 1958).

Ceylon's voters elect a new government headed by Oxford-educated nationalist S. W. R. D. (Solomon West Ridgeway Dias) Bandaranaike, 57, who takes office as prime minister April 12 (see 1948). An Official Language Act certified July 7 declares Sinhala the nation's one official tongue, it has been passed at Bandaranaike's insistence to fulfill a campaign promise, but Tamils stage a satyagraha (nonviolent protest), Bandaranaike meets with Tamil leader S. J. V. Chelvanayakam and agrees to permit the use of Tamil in administrative matters in Tamil-speaking provinces, but Buddhists denounce the agreement as a betrayal and Tamil protests will turn violent (see 1959; communications, 1958).

Indonesia's parliament revokes the 1949 Hague Agreement with the Netherlands April 21 as animosities continue between Dutch and Indonesian nationalists (see 1959).

Japan is admitted to the United Nations December 18.

Japanese economist Tanzan Ishibashi, 72, heads a new cabinet as prime minister in December, eking out a narrow victory in the polls by advocating "independent diplomacy" for the country and trade relations with the People's Republic of China. His cabinet will prove unstable, his health will decline, and he will serve only until February of next year.

A U.S. Supreme Court ruling March 26 upholds a federal law passed in 1954 to compel witnesses to testify in cases involving national security. The court rules in Ullmann v. United States that the witnesses will have immunity from prosecution equivalent to the protection guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment.

The U.S. Supreme Court excludes states from punishing persons for sedition. It rules April 3 in Pennsylvania v. Nelson that the federal government has "occupied the field" under the Smith Act of 1940.

Former U.S. vice president Alben W. Barkley dies at Lexington, Va., April 30 at age 78 while addressing a mock Democratic Party convention held by students of Washington & Lee University; Admiral Ernest J. King, U.S. Navy (ret.), dies of heart failure due to hypertension at Portsmouth, N.H., June 25 at age 77. He is credited with having masterminded the Allied victory at sea in World War II; Canadian World War I flying ace William Avery "Billy" Bishop dies at Palm Beach, Fla., September 11 at age 62.

President Eisenhower wins reelection against a second challenge from Democratic hopeful Adlai Stevenson despite the president's illness and warnings that in the event of his death he would be succeeded by his controversial vice president Richard M. Nixon. Ike receives 57 percent of the popular vote and wins 457 electoral votes, Stevenson gets only 42 percent of the popular vote and 73 electoral votes, but the Democrats retain control of Congress.

"History is on our side. We will bury you!" says Nikita Khrushchev to Western ambassadors November 17 at a Kremlin reception.

El Salvador's president Oscar Osario ends his 6-year term, having extended collective bargaining rights to urban workers (although most of his reforms are perceived as having been designed to spur economic growth to benefit the middle class) (see 1948). His vice president Lieut. Col. José Maria Lemus succeeds to power, continues the Osario policies, but will not improve workers' living standards and will retain office only until 1960.

Peru's dictator Manuel A. Odria goes into self-imposed exile after public pressure forces him to hold a free election following 8 years of repressive rule (see 1950). Former president Manuel Prado wins the election, defeating architect and Democratic Youth Front leader Fernando Belaunde Terry, 43, whose party is renamed Popular Action (Acción Popular) (see 1963).

Britain's 85-year-old Leeward Islands Colony ends July 1 as the Caribbean island of Montserrat becomes a colony in her own right.

Cuban rebel leader Fidel Castro returns from Mexico aboard the yacht Gramma and lands on the coast of Oriente Province December 2 with 81 armed men, all of whom are killed or captured with the exception of Castro himself, his brother Raul, his Argentine-born communist supporter Ernesto "Che" Guevara (who is wounded), and nine others (see 1953). The survivors make their way into the Sierra Maestra, where they join Frank País, Armando Hart, and Enrique Oltuski, who have remained in Cuba to carry on the 26th of July Movement with sabotage and political activities. The revolutionists will attract volunteers to their cause and wage guerrilla warfare against the forces of dictator Fulgencio Batista (see 1959).

Haiti's president Paul E. Magloire resigns under pressure in December after 6 years in which a devastating hurricane has crippled the nation's economy. Former minister of public health François Duvalier, 49, has rallied opposition to Magloire, and his followers will have positions in most of the six governments that will try to rule in the next 10 months (see 1957).