1923 - Political Events

Political Events

French troops occupy Germany's rich Ruhr Basin beginning January 11. The Germans have defaulted on coal deliveries promised at Versailles in 1919, and French officers swagger through the streets of Essen and other cities, lording it over the hard-pressed and embittered populace as German hyperinflation soars out of control.

Former Greek king Constantine I dies of a brain hemorrhage at Palermo January 11 at age 54; former French premier Alexandre Ribot at Paris January 13 at age 80.

Britain's moody, neurotic duke of York is married April 23 at Westminster Abbey to Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, 22, who has overcome her initial reluctance to marry the prince with his speech defect and nervous tics. She is the first commoner to marry a prince of the realm since 1660, and Prince Albert is the first son of a king to be married in Westminster Abbey since 1382.

Secret Intelligence Service director Capt. Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming collapses in his London office June 14 and dies at age 64, having headed SIS since 1911. Always a fast driver, he lost his son in a French motorcar accident in 1914, the crash cost him a leg, and he has used his child's scooter to support his wooden leg. Admiral Hugh Sinclair, 51, Royal Navy, succeeds him, having headed Naval Intelligence and tried to strengthen efforts against Bolshevism; he will serve until his death in 1939, but although he will follow his predecessor's custom of signing all papers "C," he is less colorful (see 1938).

Britain's general elections in November give the Labour Party its first great victory (see 1924).

A Bulgarian coup d'état June 9 overthrows Prime Minister Aleksandr Stamboliski, whose dictatorial policies in behalf of the peasants have antagonized the army, the Macedonians, and others (see 1920). Stamboliski is shot dead at his native Slavovitsa June 12 while allegedly trying to escape and is succeeded by University of Sofia economics professor Aleksandr Tsankov, 44, who releases the Macedonian-born former minister of war Andrei Liapchev, 56, from the prison in which he has been confined since last year. Tsankov will be prime minister until 1926, fighting the Peasants' and Communist parties (see 1934).

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) becomes a reality July 6, having been established on paper January 1 through a confederation of Russia, the Ukraine, White Russia, and Transcaucasia.

Benito Mussolini secures his Fascist dictatorship by dissolving Italy's non-Fascist parties July 10 (see 1922); Partito Popolare Italiano leader Luigi Sturzo, now 51, retires to a monastery and will go into exile next year. Mussolini forces a law through the parliament November 14 stating that any party that wins the largest number of votes in an election shall have two-thirds of the seats in the parliament even though it may have gained no more than 25 percent of the popular vote (see 1924).

German political agitator Adolf Hitler stages a "Beer Hall Putsch" at Munich November 8 as the mark falls to below 1 trillion to the dollar. Hitler has been giving speeches blaming Germany's defeat in 1918 on "cowards," Jews, "shirkers," and "November criminals." His National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) Party remains a splinter organization (see 1920), but Hitler takes over Munich's vast Bürgerbraükeller with help from Gen. Erich Ludendorff, Sturmabteilung founder Ernst Röhm, and Dietrich Eckart. The Nazis seize the city government, police promptly oust them, Chancellor Gustav Stresemann helps to crush the uprising (and foils an attempt by the army to force his resignation). Hitler flees to a friend's lakeside home and is arrested November 9, but all of Bavaria is in revolt and monarchist forces are reported marching on Berlin; President Ebert says that "crazed persons" threaten the nation. He masses troops to protect the city, and Premier Poincaré sends instructions to his ambassador at Berlin that he is to tell the Germans that France will not tolerate the establishment of a dictatorial government; Minister of War Otto (Karl) Gessler, 48, is granted supreme power briefly to restore order in the face of extremists both of the left and the right. National Socialist Party cofounder Dietrich Eckart is locked up briefly with Hitler at Landsberg Prison but dies of a heart attack December 26 at age 55; a court next year will sentence Hitler to a 5-year prison term; he will make Estonian-born editor Alfred Rosenberg, now 30, leader of the party in his absence; and he will serve 9 months in Landsberg before being paroled (Röhm will also serve a brief sentence) (see 1925).

Countess Markievicz canvasses for signatures on a petition calling for the release of Irish Republican prisoners and British detectives arrest her November 20 at Dublin (see 1921). A hunger striker dies that day at Newbridge Prison, and the countess herself is held without charges, refusing food at the North Dublin Union, a detention camp for women that opened in June. Now 55, she is released December 24 and will continue speaking for the Women's Prisoners Defense League, Fianna, labor, and other causes until her death from peritonitis following an appendectomy in July 1927.

Jordan (Transjordania) becomes an autonomous state May 26. Occupying 80 percent of Palestinian territory, the British protectorate is headed by Emir Abdullah ibn Husein, 40, whose father is king of Hejaz and whose Hashemite family is descended from the prophet Mohammed (see 1916). The country is desperately poor, her boundaries are arbitrarily drawn, and British foreign service officer Sir Mark Sykes has designed her flag, which has been produced by his army supply shop at Cairo; Britain will recognize Jordanian independence early in 1928 but retain military control and some financial control.

The Treaty of Lausanne signed July 24 returns eastern Thrace, Imbros, and Tenedos to Turkey, while Greece receives the other Aegean islands, Italy the Dodecanese Islands; Britain retains Cyprus, the Straits are demilitarized, and Turkey pays no reparations. Like the repudiated 1920 Treaty of Sèvres, the new treaty makes no provision for the Kurds. Foreign Secretary George N. Curzon, Marquis Curzon of Keddleston, has headed the British delegation and won great success at a time when his nation's prestige is low, but the murder in August of an Italian general in the boundary delegation so angers dictator Benito Mussolini that he bombards Kérkira on Corfu and holds the city briefly.

Allied forces evacuate Constantinople August 23, the Turks make Angora their capital October 14, and the Turkish Republic is formally proclaimed October 29, with Gen. Mustafa Kemal as president (see 1915; 1922). Izmir-born Gen. Ismet Inönü (originally Paza), 39, served as army chief of staff in the war against the Greeks from 1919 to 1922, defeated the Greeks twice at the village of Inönü, and becomes prime minister. Kemal has destroyed the political power wielded for centuries by Muslim leaders of the old Ottoman Empire, defeated a Greek army bent on occupation, and will make Turkey a modern nation—abolishing the veil for women (they have worn veils since the founding of the now-defunct Ottoman Empire in 1290 and for centuries before that although there was nothing in the Koran that required veils), ordering the Turks to dress in Western clothes, using Roman letters instead of Arabic, and introducing the 1582 Gregorian calendar in place of the lunar calendar (see 1924).

The Spanish garrison at Barcelona mutinies September 12; Gen. Miguel Primo de Rivera, 53, marqués de Estella, issues a manifesto that day suspending the constitution and proclaiming a directorate comprised of army and navy officers. An inquiry into the defeat of Spanish forces at Annoual in 1921 has led to Gen. Primo's seizure of power, and he has the approval of Alfonso XIII for his bloodless coup. He suppresses the report of the commission investigating the loss at Annoual, concludes the war with Morocco, takes Barcelona, proclaims martial law throughout Spain, dissolves the cortes, suspends trial by jury, imposes rigid press censorship, and jails or exiles his liberal opponents (see 1930; Morocco, 1924).

A sharpshooter kills Francisco "Pancho" Villa June 20 at age 45 while the former Mexican guerrilla leader is out driving; President Obregón may have ordered his assassination and is certainly involved in covering it up.

President Harding suffers a stroke or heart attack at Seattle while en route to Alaska and is returned to San Francisco; the public hears only that he has suffered a bout of food poisoning, but the president dies of cardiovascular disease at the Palace Hotel August 23 at age 57. Gossips suggest that his wife may have murdered him after learning of his extra-marital affairs, or that he committed suicide rather than face inquiries about the scandals involving his cabinet members. Harding is succeeded by his laconic vice president Calvin Coolidge, now 51, who is sworn in by his father, a Vermont judge who reads the oath of office from a copy of the World Almanac.

Siamese foreign minister Prince Devawongse Varoprakar dies at his native Bangkok June 28 at age 64, having served since 1885. His policies are credited with having kept his nation independent.

Former Japanese prime minister Gonnohyoe Yamamoto forms a new ministry and works to restore order following the earthquake and fire that destroy Tokyo and Yokohama September 1. Now 70, he will serve only 4 months.