1846 | Political Events
Political Events
President Polk precipitates a Mexican War that begins January 13 (see 1845). Having failed in an effort to purchase California and the New Mexico Territory from Mexico, he orders General Zachary Taylor, now 61, to advance from the Neuces River to the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo). President Anson Jones officiates at a ceremony February 19 that formally ends the Republic of Texas. General Taylor reaches the river's left bank March 28 and begins building a fort (Fort Texas) opposite Matamoras. The Mexicans order him to retire beyond the Neuces April 12, Mexican troops under the command of General Marian Arista cross the Rio Grande April 25, kill a U.S. reconnoitering party in a cavalry skirmish, and lay siege to Fort Texas May 3 with 4,500 men. Taylor marches with 2,200 men to relieve the fort, and political infighting at Mexico City delays efforts to reinforce the siege.
The Battle of Palo Alto May 8 ends in victory for General Taylor, whose 2,200 troops are outnumbered two to one but defeat the Mexicans with help from artillery pieces near the water hole of Palo Alto at the southern tip of Texas. The Mexicans lose about 1,100 killed and wounded, the Americans 170. Much of Taylor's army is made up of Irish immigrants, who have enlisted for money and adventure, but their officers have enforced harsh discipline and often abused the Irish, many of whom question attacking a weaker country whose people are Roman Catholic; dozens of them desert, crossing to attend Mass at Matamoros on the Mexican side of the Rio Grande and forming the St. Patrick Battalion (the Mexicans call them the San Patrices). The Battle at Resaca de la Palma May 9 ends in a rout of the Mexicans, who fall back across the Rio Grande.
President Polk sends a war message to Congress May 11 declaring that Mexico "has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil," Congress declares May 13 that a state of war exists by act of Mexico, it votes a war appropriation of $10 million, and it approves enlistment of 50,000 soldiers.
California's Bear Flag Revolt begins June 14 as U.S. settlers at Sonoma in the Sacramento Valley proclaim a republic independent of Mexico and raise a flag bearing a grizzly bear and a red star on a white field. About 500 Americans live in the Valley, whose Mexican population is between 8,000 and 12,000; a dozen or so Americans have seized a large herd of horses from a Mexican military commandant, another group captures Sonoma June 14 under the leadership of William B. Ide, and they issue a declaration of independence. John C. Frémont arrives at Sonoma June 25 and is elected July 5 to head the "Republic of California"; U.S. naval commander John D. (Drake) Sloat, 64, takes possession of Monterey July 7 and claims possession of California for the United States, running up the U.S. flag in place of the bear flag. Sloat's subordinate John B. (Berrien) Montgomery, 51, takes San Francisco July 9, Commodore Robert F. Stockton succeeds Sloat as commander of the U.S. Pacific fleet and enters Los Angeles August 13, accompanied by Frémont, without a shot being fired (see 1845). Naval commander Samuel F. (Francis) Dupont, 42, transports Frémont's troops to San Diego, and news of the naval occupation of California reaches Washington August 31. The only member of the Delaware powder-making family to spell his name as one word and with a capital "D," Dupont enters the Gulf of California, whose waters and coastal areas he clears entirely of Mexican forces (see 1847).
Former Mexican dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna, now 51, returns from exile at Havana, takes command of the army at Mexico City September 14, and has his gilded carriage drawn by eight mules while the wives and girlfriends of his men forage for the food that they cook for his troops, but a 10,000-man force commanded by General Pedro de Ampudia sustains a defeat September 24 at Monterrey in northwestern Mexico, where 6,000 men under General Taylor triumph September 24 after a 3-day battle. The Mexicans lose 367 killed and wounded, the Americans 120 killed, 368 wounded; Taylor occupies the city, allows the Mexicans to withdraw, and grants Ampudia's request for an 8-week armistice. President Polk repudiates the armistice, and Taylor marches on Saltillo, capital of Coahuilla. Tampico falls November 15 to U.S. naval forces under Commodore David Conner, 54, and Saltillo falls to Taylor November 16 (see 1847).
An Oregon Treaty signed with Britain June 15 gives territory south of the 49th parallel to the United States, overriding cries of "54°40' or Fight" (see 1818; 1828; 1845). Britain receives land north of the parallel on the mainland and also receives Vancouver Island, where the 21-year-old Hudson's Bay Company Fort Vancouver outpost is relocated. John McLoughlin, now 52, resigns from the company and remains behind to develop a town on land he claims as his own at the falls of the Willamette River.
Iowa enters the Union December 28 as the 29th state, with its capital at Des Moines.
Britain's Peel government falls June 29 following a split in the Conservative Party over the issue of free trade. Sir Robert Peel has come out in favor of ending the Corn Laws that bar grain imports. Lord George Bentinck, 44, has given up his passion for fox hunting and sold his race horses to devote all his efforts to retaining the Corn Laws (the second son of the 4th duke of Portland, Bentinck has been the last member of the House of Commons to wear a pink hunting coat in Parliament). Protectionist Benjamin Disraeli has joined in the revolt against Peel's ministry, Peel resigns, and the Whigs regain power under the leadership of former home secretary Lord John Russell, now 53, who led the fight for the passage of the Reform Bill of 1832, has come out in favor of free trade, and will head the government until 1852, but his own party's disunity and his own weak leadership will frustrate his efforts to extend the franchise to urban workers, guarantee security of tenure to Irish farmers, or end the civil disabilities of Jews.
Denmark's Kristian VIII lays claim July 8 to the independent duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; Prussia contests the claim (see 1848).
Portugal's right-wing António da Costa Cabral government falls after 4 years in power as a popular rising (the Maria da Fonte movement) rebels against higher taxes, but the country is left divided between Septembrists (who hold Porto), and followers of João Carlos Saldanha, now 56, who has gained the confidence of Queen Maria at Lisbon and is made a duke. The queen marries her cousin Francisco, duque de Cádiz, in October; her sister Louisa marries the duc de Montpensier, son of France's Louis Philippe. Britain had hoped that the queen would marry Leopold of Saxe-Coburg; both marriages break agreements made between France and Britain; and they strain Franco-British relations (see 1847).
The tiny republic of Kraków loses its independence November 6 in the wake of a March uprising that has led to occupation by both Austrian and Russian troops; Kraków is annexed to the Austrian-controlled part of Poland called Galicia.
Algeria's emir Abdul-Qadar (Abdulkader) takes refuge in Morocco with a few loyal adherents in July (see 1844), but he has few resources to continue the fight against France (see 1847).
The Battle of Aliwal in the Punjab January 28 ends in victory for an army of 12,000 British and Indian troops with 32 guns over a 15,000-man Sikh army with 67 guns under the command of Rajjur Singh (see 1845). General Harry Smith destroys the Sikh force, killing more than 3,000 (many of whom drown as they flee across the Sutlej River) and capturing all of its artillery, stores, and supplies; his own casualties total 151 killed, 422 wounded. General Hugh Gough hands the Sikhs another defeat February 10 at the Battle of Sobraon, this time with 15,000 troops and 100 guns against the Sikhs' 20,000 and 70 guns under the command of Tej Singh. Another 3,000 Sikhs are killed (many of them drowned, once again, as they try to cross the Sutlej), 7,000 wounded; the British and their Indian troops capture 67 Sikh guns but 164 of them are killed, 2,119 wounded. Gough marches on Lahore; the Punjab becomes a British protectorate (see 1849).
India's British raj installs a Hindu maharajah in Kashmir, whose population has long been chiefly Muslim (see 1845). Hindus and Muslims will contest control of Kashmir for more than 150 years (see 1947).
Former acting governor general of India Charles T. Metcalfe, Baron Metcalfe (of Fern Hill), dies of cancer at Malhanger, Hampshire, September 5 at age 61, having served also as governor of Jamaica and governor general of Canada.
The commander of the U.S. East India Squadron James Biddle negotiates the first Sino-American treaty. Now 63, Biddle goes on to enter Edo (later Tokyo) Bay in July with two ships, requests the opening of trade relations, between Japan and the United States, is refused, and returns to command a Pacific Coast flotilla in the Mexican War (see Perry, 1853).