1660 - Political Events

Political Events

General George Monck marches down from Scotland with Highland chief Ewen Cameron in January, replaces Charles Fleetwood as head of the army, seizes power in the name of Parliament, and receives the thanks of the reassembled Rump Parliament (see 1659). England's Civil War ends May 8 after 11 years as the son of the late Charles I is proclaimed king, and Fleetwood is permanently barred from holding public office. Jurist Matthew Hale, 50, has tried to maintain neutrality during the Civil War but has played a prominent role in promoting the restoration of Charles II (he is soon appointed chief baron of the Exchequer and, later in the year, knighted). Edward Hyde, 1st earl of Clarendon, has helped to negotiate the restoration of the monarchy but has a falling-out with Charles after criticizing his immorality and flees to France. At the urging of General Monck, Charles issues the Declaration of Breda, calling for amnesty and liberty of conscience; now 29, he lands at Dover May 26, arrives at Whitehall May 29 amidst universal rejoicing, and will reign until 1685 as Charles II. Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Baron Fairfax (of Cameron), has been among those inviting Charles to return, but he will drop out of public life next year when Charles enrages him by desecrating Oliver Cromwell's remains. Randall MacDonnell, 2nd earl of Antrim, now 50, is imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of having carried on treasonable correspondence with the Confederate Irish Catholics, but he will be pardoned in 1663 through the influence of the queen mother and have his estates restored to him in 1665. Sir Arthur Hesilrige is imprisoned in the Tower of London and will be less fortunate. Charles makes peace with his cousin Prince Rupert, now 40, appointing him a privy councillor, and will give him naval commands.

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Charles II restored the English monarchy and reigned merrily for nearly 25 years through war, plague, and fire.

English pamphleteer Roger L'Estrange, 43, attacks the blind poet John Milton, who has been an apologist for the republican Commonwealth: L'Estrange was imprisoned for 4 years after being implicated in a failed attempt to recapture the Norfolk town of Lynn from anti-Royalist forces in 1644, and his pamphlet is entitled "No Blinde Guides."

Sweden's Karl (Charles) X Gustav dies at Göteborg the night of February 12 at age 37 and is succeeded by his 4-year-old son; Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, 37, assumes power as regent, pursues bellicose policies, and will rule until 1682, when the son will take over from the corrupt regency and reign until his death in 1697 as Karl (Charles) XI (see 1672). The Treaty of Copenhagen brings peace between Sweden and Denmark, which gives up the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula but retains Bornholm and Trondheim. The Treaty of Oliva May 3 ends the 5-year-old Northern War. Poland's Jan II Casimir abandons his claims to the Swedish throne, he cedes Livonia to Sweden, and Poland loses her last Baltic territories. A second Treaty of Stolbovo brings peace between Sweden and Russia, who have been fighting since 1656 (see Treaty of Cardis, 1661).

France's Louis XIV is married June 9 in the 13th-century Eglise Saint-Jean-Baptiste at Saint Jean de Luz to the Spanish infanta Marie Therese, now 22, daughter of Felipe IV, under terms of last year's Treaty of the Pyrenees.

Ottoman troops invade Transylvania, whose prince György Rákóczy II is mortally wounded at the Battle of Gyalu in May and dies at Nagyvárad June 7 at age 38 after a 12-year reign. The Turks annex the provinces of Jenö (Yanova) August 1 and Várad August 27, but their expansion will lead to hostilities with imperial Hapsburg forces (see 1664).

A 12-month South African guerrilla war ends April 6 as Dutch colonial officials open discussions with black Khoisan pastoralists, who have attacked outposts, burned crops, and stampeded cattle. The two sides agree to separate themselves with a hedge of bitter almond trees.

Africa's Bambara kingdoms of Segu and Kaarta on the upper Niger begin their rise against the Mandingo Empire, which they will replace in 1670.