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Mythological Background

Greek tragedies were based on widely-known myths or famous historical events, so the audience would know the characters and outline of the story they were about to see. Seeing a play about Oedipus, for instance, Sophocles’ Athenian audience would already know that this story came from the cycle of myths about the city of Thebes, one of Athens’ rivals in the 5th century. Most surprises did not come from the plot, but from the new way the playwright used familiar material.

The Oedipus story is set a few generations before the Trojan War, which the ancient Greeks placed in 1184 BCE. King Laius of Thebes received a prophecy that his son would kill him. To avoid the outcome of the prophecy, Laius had his baby exposed (abandoned without protection from the elements—a common way to get rid of unwanted infants) on Mount Cithaeron, one of the most remote points of his kingdom. As an extra precaution, he nailed the child’s feet together. Unfortunately for Laius, the baby survived and was raised as a prince of the city of Corinth. He was named Oedipus, which means “swollen feet” in Greek.

Many years later, Oedipus, not knowing his true birth, met Laius on the road and killed him. At the time, Thebes was being terrorized by a monster with the head of a woman, body of a lion, and wings of an eagle called the Sphinx. She was particularly famous for telling everyone she encountered a riddle: “What walks on four legs in the morning, two legs in the afternoon, and three legs in the evening?” Men who answered incorrectly were devoured.

Oedipus answered the challenge by guessing “man” (who crawls as a baby, walks on two legs as an adult, and leans on a cane in his old age). Her riddle solved, the Sphinx threw herself from a cliff, and Oedipus was crowned king of Thebes. Oedipus married the recently widowed queen, Jocasta. He did not know his real relationship to the man he killed and the woman he married.

Because Sophocles’ audience was already familiar with this information, he does not need to explain it in the drama; he can simply allude to it.

anyone who makes a request or prayer from a position of powerlessness. In Greek culture, the suppliant was a sacred position with special rights, responsibilities, and visual symbols. Suppliants wore or carried special emblems, such as olive branches, to identify themselves. Traditionally, they knelt before the person they were supplicating and touched either his knees or chin (it was thought that the knees and chin were directly connected to a person’s heart). Suppliants also took refuge at altars. It was taboo to harm a suppliant, and anyone who did so would be cursed.
Cadmus was the founder of Thebes; see Thebes
shrines at his home, the palace, not shrines to him
someone who makes requests from a position of powerlessness; see Suppliant
He points to the different groups as he speaks; see Stage directions
The marketplace (or agora) was the center of city life for the Greeks.
the goddess of wisdom; see Gods and goddesses
a local hero in Boeotia. Heroes were mortals, such as Helen of Troy or Achilles, who were worshipped as demigods after their deaths.
i.e., the children are stillborn
In some contexts, this refers to Sirius, the dog star, which ushers in the feverish times of August, but here it simply refers to the plague as a god.
an allusion to Ploutos, or Wealth, another name for Hades
The priest here refers to the intersections between ordinary mortal life and divine intervention;see Religion
the Sphinx; see
Sophocles emphasizes Oedipus’ intellectual search. Oedipus’ commitment to thought and humanist belief in human intelligence both characterize and doom him.
Delphi, the most famous oracle in the Greco-Roman world
Since Greek theaters are outdoors, and the stage entrances long and open, the audience would also be able to see Creon coming.
The laurel was the tree of Apollo.
It is important that Sophocles characterizes Oedipus as a good king. He feels concern for his people and rules justly.
Murder and incest violate natural law as well as human law, so these crimes were seen to offend the gods. Both the agent and location of the crime were polluted by the act, as were people or places harboring the polluted individual; proper ritual cleansing (catharsis) was necessary to restore both person and place to an acceptable state. In the presence of pollution, sacrifices and prayers would be ignored by the gods, who were offended by the pollution. Hence, the community had to become involved— just one polluted person could destroy an entire city, which is the case in the beginning of the Oedipus Rex, when the presence of Laius’ uncleansed murderer brings a plague upon Thebes. Apollo’s oracle tells the Thebans to either kill or drive out the guilty man, which will remove the source of pollution from Thebes. Assuming that the guilty man left Thebes for voluntary exile, he could approach a temple or powerful person and ask for ritual cleansing, at which point he would not longer be considered polluted or bring pollution upon his location.
The Greeks believed that, when a murder was committed, the murderer, the place of the crime, and any place that harbored the killer were polluted, that is, outside the favor of the gods; see Pollution
Some people have read the Oedipus Rex as a kind of detective story. It is, of course, much more than that, but we do see Oedipus pursuing clues and reasoning through arguments. Sophocles emphasizes this intellectual process more than in other plays.
Oedipus immediately suspects a treasonous conspiracy in Thebes to assassinate the king.
a monster sent by the goddess Hera against the city of Thebes. The Sphinx was part lion, part eagle, and part woman; she asked a riddle and devoured anyone who could not answer it. When Oedipus correctly answered the riddle, the Sphinx threw herself from a cliff and perished, thus ending the terror at Thebes.
The pollution from the murder insults the god, so he, too, is interested in its removal.
dramatic irony; the audience knows Oedipus didcommit the crime
the one who stops or restrains it
a group of characters who act as a collective; in Oedipus, they speak for the city
Everything before the chorus’ entrance (or parados) is considered the play’s prologue. After their entry, the chorus remain in the orchestra for the whole play; see chorus.
The chorus’ song consists of matched stanzas; each antistrophematches the strophe before it. In the Greek, these are metrically identical.
The prophecy is considered from Zeus because he speaks through the oracle of his son, Apollo; see prophecy
another name for Apollo; the hymn, or paean is sung to him as healer
These lines recall a famous shrine to Artemis in the Theban marketplace.
the region of sunset, the realm of Death
the god of war, particularly its irrational destruction. Here he is invoked as a figure of rampant devastation in general, the plague specifically.
The chorus pray to fight fire with fire, i.e. to fight the destructive fire of Ares and the plague with the beneficial fires of Zeus’s thunderbolt, of Apollo’s and Artemis’ flashing arrows, and of Dionysus’ torches.
an ocean goddess
the Atlantic Ocean and the Black Sea, considered by the Greeks the edges of the world.
Apollo
Dionysus (or Bacchus) was the son of a Theban princess, so Thebes is sometimes called “Bacchic.”
Maenads were nymphs who followed Dionysus everywhere he went.
i.e., Ares
Since he replies to the chorus’ prayers, Oedipus may have entered during the latter part of their song. His speech marks the return to normal dialogue from the choral ode.
These lines in the manuscript are very corrupt, an unfortunately common occurrence in the surviving literature from ancient Greece. The lines given reflect what seems to be the sense.
Oedipus’ words are binding on all Thebans, so he has to make allowances for the possibility that a foreigner killed Laius. Here he refers to two groups: Thebans and everyone else.
Oedipus forbids the killer to take part in any religious rites; the gods would be offended by the presence of a polluted man, and so the sacrifice would be in vain.
A crucial moment in the play. The audience would know that Oedipus, himself the murderer, becomes the agent of his own destruction through his own curse.
The dialogue lines designated “chorus” were probably spoken by a single ‘chorus-leader,’ hence the singular pronouns. He speaks, however, for the chorus as a whole, who, in turn, represent the citizen body of Thebes.
Observing the flight of birds was an important aspect of Greek prophecy, as their motions were thought to indicate the gods’ will.
or miasma; see note 18
The Greeks bowed down only before gods, so this is a very strong gesture of Tiresias’ special status.
Remember that Oedipus has doubted the bandit story from the beginning and always suspected a conspiracy in Thebes.
i.e., How can you escape the consequences of this accusation?
The Sphinx was sent by Hera in anger at the Thebans to guard them closely; the monster is compared to a dog with its prey at bay.
The chorus pleads for a more civic-minded attitude from both men, especially Oedipus, but is ignored.
another name for Apollo, one particularly associated with his role as a god of prophecy
As a citizen, Tireseias does not need Creon to stand up for him, but can speak for himself. The metaphor is drawn from Athenian legal procedure.
i.e., both to the dead Laius and the living Jocasta
The Greek has “terror-footed curse,” meaning the curse will track Oedipus relentlessly. This is a common image in Greek poetry for the Furies, frightening and ancient goddesses who pursue and drive mad those who have sinned against their own kin.
the mountain in southern Boeotia (the region in which Thebes is located) where Oedipus was to have been exposed as an infant. Cithaeron’s position on the border of Theban territory allowed Laius’ herdsman to encounter someone who worked for Polybus of Corinth.
the mountain on which Oedipus was abandoned; see Cithaeron
As Oedipus reveals later, this question has long bothered him.
Allusions to the Sphinx and Oedipus’ victory over her dominate the next few lines.
Since ancient plays lack stage directions, we do not know if Oedipus remains on stage for this speech or reenters the palace.
Since choral odes usually comment on all the action that has happened since the last ode, the chorus deal with Oedipus’ decree in the first strophe-antistrophe pair and then the confrontation with Teiresias in the second strophe-antistrophe pair.
Apollo’s oracle at Delphi was cradled in tall mountains, and the murder occurred at the crossroads leading to Delphi, so the Chorus are correct to call the rock of Delphi a literal witness to the murder—they do not do so merely because of Apollo’s gift of prophetic sight.
This passage is convoluted in the original Greek, and some scholars feel that the text is corrupt in this stanza.
Apollo’s oracle at Delphi, the most important place of prophecy in the Greek world and hence one of the few symbols of Greek cultural unity, was often called the Navel of the World; see Oracles
The Chorus still believe Polybus, the King of Corinth and Oedipus’ adoptive father, is, in fact, his real father.
a hard stone used to test the purity of precious metals
The Chorus adopts a deliberately noncommittal position.
i.e., Oedipus
The idea that the tyrant’s life is bad because he must be constantly vigilant and can never relax is common in Greek literature and philosophy.
i.e., the imagined conspiracy with Tiresias to overthrow Oedipus
In order to understand the will of the gods, the Greeks consulted oracles. These were places holy to a specific deity (often Apollo); humans could pose questions and the god would answer through a chosen intermediary. The most important oracle in the Greek world was Apollo’s temple at Delphi (also called Pytho, because legend said that it was founded when Apollo killed the previous resident, a giant snake, or python.). Here, Apollo answered questions through his priestess, the Pythia, who entered an ecstatic state and babbled out responses, which were in turn interpreted and delivered in verse by the priests. It was customary for kings and cities to consult the oracle of Delphi before making any big decision.
The text at these lines is very corrupt; it is obvious that some lines have been lost.
Oaths are serious business in Greek tragedy and Greek thought in general, so this is an extremely strong statement of innocence from Creon.
Here begins the first kommos, a lyric song sung by the characters and Chorus together Note how, while both Chorus and characters are very emotional, their concerns are different: The Chorus are, as always, concerned with the city’s welfare, the individual characters with the problems of their family. There is some regular dialogue between the strophe and antistrophe, and the Chorus here do most of the singing.
i.e., by the god who is most evident to human sight, the all-seeing Sun
i.e., Creon thinks the Chorus will see him as just.
Here ends the kommos.
Jocasta does not answer Oedipus’ charge against Creon, but moves to discredit Tiresias. While this speech is necessary for the drama of Oedipus’ identity to progress, it is something of a non sequitur here.
Note that Jocasta here does not doubt the credibility of all oracles; she trusts the god himself, but not his mortal agents.
i.e., Oedipus now suspects he killed Laius and has called down curses upon himself.
Dorus was one of the oldest forefathers of the Greeks of the Peloponnesus, a peninsula in Southern Greece.
i.e., he will be so far away that Corinth will be connected to him only because it is under the same sky
An important man like Laius would have another slave walking at the head of the team of horses, while Laius stood or sat in the chariot.
a stick with two sharp points at one end used to spur the horses.
Oedipus would here lift his hand up to show, “ this very hand.”
ironic, as the play questions just this assumption.
i.e., in accordance with the oracle
This ode, the play’s second stasimon, is notoriously difficult to interpret.
The Greek word is hybris; see glossary for this term
This controversial line could refer to the search for the murderers or the struggle between wealthy Greeks to finance public events.
Here, the chorus may break the dramatic illusion by mentioning their own dance, or they may be using “dance” metaphorically to mean “do religious rites.”
Delphi is called “inviolate” because Apollo defended it from harm, most famously in the Persian attack on the temple in 480 BCE.
a major shrine to Apollo
a major shrine to Zeus
the flowers and incense, a very suitable offering when blood sacrifice is inappropriate or unavailable
She refers to the shrine to Apollo in front of the palace. “Lycean” in Greek brings Apollo to mind as both bringer of light (lyk) and slayer of the wolf (lykos) / protector of the fold.
The “ship of state” metaphor is an old one in Greek thought.
This is the polite way for Greeks to address one another before names are known; it was considered impolite in heroic culture to ask a name before proper hospitality had been offered.
the thin bridge of land connecting the mainland, on which Thebes and Delphi were located, to the Peloponnesus, where Corinth was
She addresses one of her attendants, who would be on stage as mute characters.
Literally, “ a big eye,” the eye being conceived as something bright and comforting. It is also a metaphor rich with irony for this play.
“Oedipus” means “swollen feet.”
Note Oedipus’ great excitement to finally end the mystery surrounding his birth.
Jocasta, of course, has realized the truth.
Oedipus misunderstands Jocasta’s concerns. He thinks she is worried because if he is found to be of servile birth, then she, a princess, will have married a slave. He has no idea she is his mother.
Oedipus declares himself the child of Tyche (Chance); the children of Tyche are the Months, which symbolize changes throughout the year. Hence, they have noted the change in Oedipus’ personal fortunes; see Tyche.
This ode, the third stasimon, is very short; the chorus are ecstatically carried away by Oedipus’ declaration. In return, they declare him of divine origin. The consequent raising of their hopes contributes to the complete ruin into which everyone will crash in the next episode.
the Nymphs, who were often thought of not as immortal goddesses, but merely as living long beyond the span of mortal men.
the goat-legged god of wild things and places; hence his favorite places are the pastures of ‘beasts’ and not sheep, cattle, or other domestic animals.
Hermes
Dionysus
He now sees the Shepherd approaching the stage.
He indicates
to prepare him for a flogging
The Messenger and the Shepherd might go offstage at any point after this; without stage directions, however, we cannot be sure when.
The fourth stasimon places Oedipus’ downfall in the context of all human existence. The theme is one common in 5th century BCE Greek thought, a traditional moral that became almost an obsession in authors like Sophocles and Herodotus: call no man happy until he is dead.
one of the major cities in Greece (one of Athens’ rivals in Sophocles’ time) and the scene of the action of the Oedipus Rex. Hera sends the monstrous Sphinx to punish Thebes; when Oedipus defeats the Sphinx, he earns the kingship, marrying the queen Jocasta, widowed by the murder of Laius. The city of Thebes played a large role in Greek mythology—the “Theban cycle” in epic rivaled the “Trojan cycle” of the Iliad and Odyssey. Many Greek tragedies are set in Thebes besides the Oedipus, e.g. Aeschylus’ Seven Against Thebes, Sophocles’ Antigone, and Euripides’ Bacchae.
sexual
a liquid sacrifice, most often of wine, perfume, milk, honey, or a combination. These were given in many circumstances, but especially were poured at tombs to the shades of the dead.
a reference to Oedipus’ saving of the city and his destruction
the “Second Messenger” of the play, who rushes out of the palace to narrate the events within. The language is starkly vivid; no emotional power is lost by the audience’s not seeing the events narrated.
Tearing one’s hair was a traditional sign of mourning forGreek women.
unusual for a Greek tragedy; the actor playingOedipus will have changed masks— the new mask would have shown Oedipus’ blindness in a gory way.
Here begins the kommos between the Chorus and Oedipus. While Oedipus speaks in lyric meters, the Chorus speak only in iambic lines, the normal meter of dialogue. This contrasts Oedipus’ heightened emotional state with the Chorus’ more deliberate response.
Greek poetry often portrays evil spirits in high places (dancing on the rooftops, for instance), preparing to pounce upon their victims.
Sophocles uses a word for extinguishing a fire; sight and eyes, in Greek, are often described as lights, and Oedipus has snuffed his out.
This is the last line of the kommos.
The Greeks did not distinguish a separate afterlife for the good or bad. All the dead went to the same gloomy fate: not torture, but a bleak, barren eternity with neither light nor sweetness.
the Sun
i.e., that Creon came to mock or take revenge on Oedipus
He cannot bring himself to say her name or her relation to him.
Sophocles shows Oedipus’ emotion by puncturing the longer, ordinary speech with short lines.
Oedipus’ daughters, Antigone and Ismene, played an important role in the traditional stories about the aftermath of Oedipus’ downfall, particularly in Sophocles’ Antigone.
Because of the curse now on their house, the girls cannot take part in the religious festivals that made up the bulk of Greek social life; their presence would pollute the festival and avert the gods’ favor.

External Links

Oedipus Rex (Wikipedia Reference)

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