Frontmatter

Introduction

“It is well that war is so terrible, or we would grow too fond of it.” As Gen. Robert E. Lee observed at Fredericksburg in 1862, battle can produce spectacular pageantry, bravery, and exhilaration, but it also yields mangled bodies and bloated corpses. That is war's eternal paradox. In it, brutality, cynicism, tragedy, and absurdity are accompanied by courage, comradeship, self‐sacrifice, and noble purpose. The continuing popularity of books and films from All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) to Saving Private Ryan (1998) demonstrates that, for all its contradictions, war has its fascinations.

War is central to the way the United States has developed as a nation and a society. The use of military force attended the conquest of the Indians, the expulsion of French and then British power, the birth of the republic, western expansion, the preservation of the Union, the creation of an island empire, and the triumph of the United States in two world wars. The use and the threat of using military force accompanied the emergence of the United States as a global superpower.

Warlike images form part of the national memory: the Minutemen with farmers' muskets and tricornered hats standing up to the king's red‐coated soldiers at Lexington and Concord, Andrew Jackson and his buck‐skinned frontiersmen blasting the British regulars at New Orleans, the masses of blue‐ and gray‐clad citizen‐soldiers firing volley after volley at each other in the Civil War, Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders charging up San Juan Hill (and the oft‐forgotten black regulars alongside them), khaki‐clad doughboys slashing through the Argonne Forest in World War I.

Who can forget the iconography of World War II, from the burning ships in Pearl Harbor to the Japanese surrender on the deck of the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay? Photographers immortalized Douglas MacArthur wading ashore returning to the Philippines, the Marines raising the flag on Iwo Jima, the B‐17s dropping sticks of bombs over Germany, and the deadly mushroom cloud spiraling above Hiroshima. The American memory of that war also contains pictures of Gen. George Patton and his ivory‐handled pistols, Dwight D. Eisenhower meeting paratroopers bound for Normandy, Robert Capa's blurred photos of G.I.s struggling ashore at Omaha Beach, and the haunting images of skeletal survivors as the Allies liberated German death camps.

War certainly has its dark side—one emphasized since World War II. The cold, bone‐weary faces of American G.I.s haunt David Duncan's photos of the Korean War. Following them are the fiery images of burning villages and screaming civilians in the Vietnam War, and the emotive pictures of American body bags and amputees coming home from Southeast Asia, Eddie Adams's picture of a summary execution in the streets of Saigon in 1968. Some twenty years later, fear of massive American casualties accompanied the deployment of U.S. troops in the Persian Gulf War—a fear only alleviated by the success of America's high‐technology weaponry and combat‐ready forces, which destroyed many of Saddam Hussein's military units and installations in Iraq and occupied Kuwait.

With the end of the Cold War, international conflict and the military are once again in transition. Gone are the minuscule standing forces in peacetime and the old mass armies of wartime draftees and volunteers. Replacing them are highly mobile, professional, all‐volunteer forces now increasingly combining active duty and reserve troops. War too has changed. The world wars and threat of global conflict that characterized much of the twentieth century seem to be a thing of the past. The Persian Gulf War of 1991 showed that intensive regional wars may certainly continue. Retaining the ability to project massive power overseas, American armed forces at the beginning of the twenty‐first century have been assigned new missions, such as acting against regional threats involving the use of weapons of mass destruction. But the U.S. military has also returned to an old mission involving constabulary duties. Now, however, these include border security, counter terrorism, and, in a world increasingly torn by internal and sectarian strife, peacekeeping.

As U.S. experiences in Somalia and Bosnia show, the multinational use of outside armed forces in dangerous areas to separate previously warring groups and encourage the development of stable peaceful conditions is a complex and difficult mission. Yet this role is rooted in historic American relationships among war, peace, and the military. For Americans often seek to use the military for idealistic purposes—from “the war to end all wars” in 1917–18 to the rescue mission of the Berlin Airlift in 1948–49—and in recent years, the United States has been a major supporter of the idea of collective security and peacekeeping through the United Nations and NATO.

Of course, peace and peace movements are also important in U.S. history. Traditionally, Americans see themselves as a peace‐loving people and war as an aberration. As a people, they are committed not to Old World conquest or balance‐of‐power politics, but to the expansion of their political and economic ideals expressed in terms of life, liberty, justice, and democracy. Only a few Americans have been absolute pacifists, like the Quakers, but many have led in struggles for non violence and social justice, among them, William Lloyd Garrison, Jane Addams, and Martin Luther King, Jr. They also believed in an internationalism without violence. Other internationalists championed collective security for a world of peace and justice, such as Presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt. Both kinds of internationalists reacted against traditional American isolationism; indeed, isolationists usually opposed the deployment or use of U.S. troops overseas.

Increased popular interest in the role of war, peace, and the military in U.S. history is evident in films, books, commemorations, reenactments, and other aspects of popular culture. This coincides with a transformation in scholarship in the field. In the last two generations, a variety of new scholarly approaches has augmented the old “drum and trumpet” school of refighting battles. The new military history first shifted attention to the evolution of military institutions, engaging not simply historians but sociologists, economists, anthropologists, and political scientists. Some scholars then began to explore the wider relationship between war, the military, and society. Others probe the nexus with science and technology. Scholars in cultural history as well as in psychology, literary criticism, film studies, and gender studies explore cultural dimensions of war, peace, and the military. The comparatively new field of peace history is producing works on peace and antiwar movements and their relationship to politics and culture. Building on a broad conception of national defense, some historians, political scientists, sociologists, and economists examine relationships among the military, the economy, and governmental policy either in the short run or in long‐term interpretations of the rise and decline of particular nations. In a different direction, but equally as influential, is a renewed attention on battle. This new combat history, however, shifts the focus away from the perspective of top commanders to the battle experiences of the common soldiers, airmen, sailors, or Marines.

Drawing on the most current scholarship in the field and in a number of cases advancing that scholarship, The Oxford Companion to American Military History provides a comprehensive, one‐volume guide to the study of war, peace, and the military throughout American history. Through more than 1,000 alphabetically arranged entries, each written and signed by a specialist in the field, this work examines America's military past from the colonial era to the present. It focuses not only on wars, battles, and military institutions but also on their relationship to the social, economic, political, and cultural milieu. In recognition of this broader understanding of military history and the history of war and peace in America, the volume also examines peace and antiwar movements, efforts at arms reduction, and limitations on the size and use of the armed forces.

In entries ranging from brief essays to extensive analyses, the Companion covers the various armed conflicts, institutions, policies, weapons, organizations, individuals, and issues that have together made up the American experience with war, peace, and the military. Although its primary focus is historical—particularly military history, war and society studies, peace history, and the history of international relations—the work uses an interdisciplinary approach. It includes concepts and research from such other fields as art history, cultural anthropology, economics, film studies, gender studies, literary criticism, minority studies, political science, and sociology.

Like the shadows on a parade field, the military reflects the larger society that creates it. The primary goal of this reference work is to explore the changing nature of war and the military and, in the process, to explain how and why the United States developed its military institutions, weapons, and national security policies. It seeks to understand the impact of war on American society and the state, and the influence of American politics, culture, and society on the nature of war and military organization. Taken as a whole, the Companion seeks to answer several key thematic questions: How has the military evolved in American history? How has it prepared for and carried out its missions? What have been the role and impact of war and the military? What has been the relationship of war, weaponry, and the military to U.S. foreign policy and to American society, including various social and economic groups, the political system, and the national culture and pluralistic subcultures? How have these groups, institutions, policies, and values helped to shape one another? What has caused and characterized the evolution of movements for arms limitation, peace, and reduction of the armed forces?

Included in the Companion are broad, interpretive entries designed to further several goals. One aim is to provide historical insight into particular wars and military organizations. “Composite” pieces composed of integrated essays separate these large topics into manageable areas. For example, articles on each major war are divided into essays that deal with the war's causes, military and diplomatic events, domestic course, postwar impact, and changing interpretations. Other composite articles break into chronological periods the history of each major service—U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. Another aim is to provide theoretical as well as historical understanding of the military's structure and missions, and of the social, political, economic, technological, cultural, and strategic context in which these have evolved.

Within the space available, this book provides a comprehensive guide to the history and current circumstances of the U.S. armed services, as well as American ideas about war, peace, and national security. It does so through an alphabetical organization that comprises several broad categories of entries. These categories were designed to reveal the connections and relationships among the topics under consideration. In planning articles, the criteria for inclusion always began with the question: What is the overall significance of this subject within the context of war, peace, and the military in American history?

Conceptual categories include:

Historical Actions and Events.

More than 300 articles examine historical actions and events. Varying in length from a few hundred to several thousand words, these entries deal with wars (from King Philip's War of 1675–1677 to the Persian Gulf War of 1991), battles and sieges (such as Bunker Hill, Gettysburg, Normandy, Inchon, and the Tet Offensive), overviews of air and naval operations in specific wars or campaigns (such as U.S. Naval Operations in the Pacific in World War II and U.S. Air Operations in the Korean War), armed insurrections (like the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 or the New York City Antidraft Riots of 1863), and international incidents and crises (from the Samoan Crisis of 1888–89 to the Kosovo Crisis of 1999). They include acts of Congress (like the G.I. Bill and the War Powers Resolution) and executive orders, court cases and decisions, international conferences and agreements, and overviews of U.S. military involvement in other countries or regions (from Canada to the United Kingdom, the Caribbean to the Middle East).

Concepts.

War, peace, and the military cannot be adequately understood without the concepts that underlie them. Thus, the Companion provides extensive articles on such major relevant concepts as Foreign Policy, War, Peace, National Security, Military Doctrine, and the State. More than two dozen middle‐length entries on related concepts, among them Collective Security, Command and Control, Deterrence, Operational Art, the Order of Battle, Principles of War, the Rules of Engagement, Victory, and Defeat, as well as Pacifism, Peacekeeping, Nonviolence, Just War Theory, and the Laws of War. There are also composite articles, combining a cluster of connected entries. The composite entry on Strategy, for example, is divided among articles on the Fundamentals of Strategy and Historical Development, and then three separate articles on the application of Strategy to Land, Sea, and Air warfare. Due to the differences they entail, there are also entries on nearly two dozen different kinds of warfare (such as Airborne Warfare, Amphibious Warfare, Napoleonic Warfare, Privateering, and Trench Warfare).

The Armed Services.

A special emphasis of the work is on explaining the nature and historical evolution of the armed services as institutions and their relationship to American society, polity, culture, and international relations. Each has, of course, influenced the other. Institutional entries provide historical perspective on such topics as the individual U.S. armed services, plus each of their combat branches. A composite entry on the U.S. Army, for example, contains an overview article, accompanied by five chronological articles covering the Colonial and Revolutionary Eras, and the periods 1783–1865, 1866–1899, 1900–1941, and since 1941. Another composite article explores the Army Combat Branches, with entries on Infantry, Artillery, Cavalry, Armor, and Aviation. For more information about the weapons of these branches, the reader can consult generic articles on, for example, Artillery, Machine Guns, Standard Infantry Side Arms, Tanks. There are similar composite chronological and combat branch articles on the navy, air force, and Marine Corps, as well as a general article on the Coast Guard. Other entries explain the development of the militia and the National Guard and of the other reserves. The myriad aspects of military life in war and peace are explored in scores of different articles: these include overviews of the nature of Gender and Identity in the Military, Mobilization, Rank and Hierarchy in the Military, Recruitment, and Training and Indoctrination, as well as Concepts of Military Leadership. There are also articles on Careers in the Military, Casualties, the Changing Experience of Combat, Combat Effectiveness, Combat Support, Prisoners of War, and Troop Morale.

Weaponry and Material.

Weapons systems, and instruments of detection, observation, communication, and supply essential components of the armed forces. The Companion encompasses a wide variety of articles here, ranging from specific weapons and other instruments to generic categories. The aim is not simply to describe and explain their function but to give their historical military significance and, when pertinent, to situate them within a larger political and economic context. Interpretive overview articles place developments in multidimensional perspective (there are long entries, for example, on the Evolution of Weapons, on Nuclear Weapons, and on the Arms Race, as well as separate overviews on the Weaponry of the U.S. Air Force, the army, the navy, the U.S. Air Force, and the Marine Corps). Other articles of varying length explain the evolving forms and usage of such support functions as Intelligence (with separate articles on the roles of MAGIC and ULTRA in World War II), Coding and Decoding, Covert Operations, Engineering, Logistics, Maintenance, and Transportation, as well as such detection systems as Radar, Sonar, AWACS aircraft, AEGIS ships, U‐2 Spy Planes, Reconnaissance Satellites, and Heat‐Seeking Technology.

State and Society.

The armed forces are, of course, instruments of the state, but they—and war itself—reflect and affect the larger society. Responding to new scholarship on war and society, as well as producing new scholarship itself, the Companion includes substantial articles on social perspectives, economic perspectives (from the economy and war to procurement in various defense industries), and political perspectives (Congress, War, and the Military; the News Media, War, and the Military; the President as Commander in Chief; Public Opinion, War, and the Military; and the Supreme Court, War, and the Military). There are also articles about rebellions against state power: an extensive one on Colonial Rebellions and Armed Civil Unrest (1607–1775), and specific articles on Bacon's Rebellion (1676), Shays's Rebellion (1786–87), and the Whiskey Rebellion (1794), as well as the internal strife known as Bleeding Kansas (1854–58).

Law and Ethics.

Because of the purpose of the armed forces and the nature of war, the military's system of law and its professional ethics have often differed from those of the larger civilian society. Particularly in twentieth‐century America, however, with the increased sense of individual rights, egalitarianism, and civil liberty, more confluence has evolved between military and civilian systems of law and ethics. In this work, the nature and evolution of military law, which has focused more on maintaining discipline than achieving justice, and of military ethics, increasingly delineated, are treated in a number of entries. Among these is a large composite article on Military Justice, plus shorter articles on the Right to Bear Arms, Civil Liberties and War, and the Constitutional and Political Basis of War and the Military. There are also individual articles on such topics as Atrocities, Ethical Issues Involving Nuclear Weapons, Genocide, the U.S. War Effort and the Holocaust, and War Crimes.

Dissent.

War and the military have sometimes provoked vigorous dissent in American history. Responding to broadening scholarship on peace, arms reduction movements, and alternative views of national security, the Companion includes articles on such groups and movements. Sizable interpretive entries examine Conscientious Objection, Draft Resistance and Evasion, Nuclear Protest Movements, Peace and Antiwar Movements, and the Vietnam Antiwar Movement. Individual groups, ranging from Quakers to the War Resisters League, merit smaller entries.

Popular Culture and the Military.

Cultural perspectives are important in understanding the relationship of war and the military to society. Consequently, a number of pioneering articles explore various interrelationships between war and the military and American culture, including historically oriented entries dealing with such diverse topics as Commemoration and Public Ritual, Military Reenactments, and Paramilitary Groups. Separate articles appear on War and the Military in Film; Illustration, and Photography; Literature; Music; Sermons and Orations; and Textbooks. There is even an article on Military Influences on Fashion.

Biographies.

Some 300 biographical entries explore the lives of individuals of particular importance to war, peace, and the military in American history. These include 25 U.S. presidents and many other civilian public officials, more than 100 generals and admirals (from Nathanael Greene to Colin Powell), plus other military figures (from Molly Pitcher to Sergeant Alvin York). You will find biographies of military theorists, inventors, scientists (such as Carl von Clausewitz, Alfred T. Mahan, Giulio Douhet, Robert Fulton, Samuel Colt, John Dahlgren, John Holland, Orville and Wilbur Wright, John von Neumann); pacifists and social activists (William Penn, Henry David Thoreau, and Emily Greene Balch); and other nonmilitary public figures (among them Clara Barton, Frederick Douglass, W. E. B. Du Bois, Charles Lindbergh, Bill Mauldin, Ernie Pyle, and Norman Thomas). There are Native American warrior chiefs, and several foreign leaders, friend or foe (from George III to Saddam Hussein).

Combining clear, lively prose with the latest scholarship, The Oxford Companion to American Military History is a reference source that students, teachers, journalists, military history buffs, and general readers will find indispensable.

How to Use This Companion

As you begin the intellectual adventure of exploring and using this work, you will rapidly discover that it is designed for both specific reference and sustained browsing. Wide exploration of related topics is encouraged by several features:

• Alphabetical arrangement of entries provides the quickest way to locate a significant person or topic. You can plunge right into the book by selecting something that interests you and go from there. Perhaps it is an individual—King Philip (Metacomet), Molly Pitcher (Mary Hays Ludwig), George Washington, Tecumseh, Winfield Scott, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, Abraham Lincoln, or maybe George Custer, Emory Upton, George Patton, Hyman Rickover, Robert McNamara, or Bill Clinton. It could be an adversary: Charles Cornwallis, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Isoroku Yamamoto, Erwin Rommel, Adolf Hitler, or Vo Nguyen Giap. Maybe it is a specific battle or war or a particular type of weapon (Sailing Warships, Battleships, Stealth Aircraft, or Rifled Musket, Gatling Gun, the M‐16 Rifle). It might be a particular branch of the service such as Special Operations Forces: U.S. Navy SEALS, or historical organizations like the Continental Army and Navy, the Union Army and Navy, the U.S. Colored Troops, or the Confederate Army and Navy. It could be the Militia and National Guard. There are midlength historical articles on various aspects of military life, from Uniforms, Insignia, Interservice Rivalry to Medical Practice, Military Families, and Sexual Harassment. Longer thematic essays probe such topics as Native Americans in the Military; War: Nature of War; Nuclear Weapons and War, Popular Images of; Pacifism; and Terrorism and Counterterrorism. There are historical overviews of U.S. Military Involvement in the Caribbean and Latin America as well as the Middle East—or any one of nearly two dozen other regions or specific countries.

• The index is a good place to start a more systematic search, for it offers the most effective way to discover a wide variety of persons, events, organizations, institutions, doctrines, and weapons, whether they have their own entries or are embedded in a larger article. For example, the index references to Gen. Billy Mitchell will not only guide the reader to his alphabetically listed biographical entry; they will also indicate references to this controversial advocate of airpower in articles on the predecessors of the U.S. Air Force, 1907–46; on Strategy: Air Warfare Strategy; and, because of his court‐martial, to the entry on Civil‐Military Relations. Or, since there is no alphabetical entry for the Pequot War (1636–37), a description of this conflict can be found via the index in the article on Native American Wars: Wars Between Native Americans and Europeans.

• Blind entries appear within the alphabetical range of headwords. For synonyms, related subjects, and inverted terms, they refer the reader to the entry under which the topic is discussed. For example, the blind entry on “Manassas, Battles of” refers the reader to entries listed as “Bull Run, First Battle of (1861)” and “Bull Run, Second Battle of (1862).” In some cases, the blind entry will refer to another entry that discusses the topic as part of a broader category. The blind entry “Atomic Bomb,” for example, directs the reader to “Atomic Scientists,” “Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Bombings of (1945),” “Manhattan Project,” and “Nuclear Weapons.”

• Asterisks in the body of an article denote cross‐references. Topics marked can be found elsewhere in the volume as separate entries. Asterisks can direct the reader to more detailed treatments of specific battles, weapons, commanders, laws, or court cases. For example, the article on “Civil‐Military Relations: Civilian Control of the Military” is cross‐referenced to more than half a dozen acts or events, from the “Newburgh ‘Conspiracy’ (1783)” to the “Goldwater‐Nichols Act (1986).” Or, the cross‐references can place a more limited topic within a larger context. For example, the entries on the “D‐Day Landing (1944)” and “St. Lô, Breakout at (1944),” both refer the reader to the larger campaign of which they were a part: the article on “Normandy, Invasion of (1944).”

• Cross‐references also appear in the section entitled “See also” that follows many entries. For example, in the article on “Bacon's Rebellion (1676),” there are such cross‐references to larger entries on “Colonial Rebellions and Armed Civil Unrest,” as well as “Native American Wars: Wars Between Native Americans and Europeans.” In the entry on “Benedict Arnold,” the reader is also directed to such larger topics as the “Revolutionary War: Military and Diplomatic Course” and “Treason.” From the “War of 1812,” cross‐references lead to conceptual entries on “Neutrality” and on “Trade, Foreign,” which were major causes of the war. Similarly, the entry on the “Emancipation Proclamation” also directs the reader to related broader topics such as “African Americans in the Military” and “Civil War: Domestic Course.”

Suggestions for further reading at the end of most articles are useful to learn more about the topic. The length of these reading lists varies, with the longest included with the most comprehensive essays. While every effort has been made to include the most recent, nontechnical, and widely available books, inevitably some topics require more specialized reading, and their biblio graphies reflect this fact. Finally, the name of the contributor of the entry appears either at the end of the text or after the bibliography. A section in the front of the book lists individual contributors and their institutional affiliations.

The history of America's wars and the military can be made more understandable by graphics. Consequently, the Companion includes tables on wartime mobilization and casualties, charts indicating the ranks and accompanying insignia in the armed forces, and maps of the Revolutionary War, Civil War, World War II, and the Vietnam War. These are located in an appendix at the end of the book for the reader's reference.

Acknowledgments

Initially conceived in conjunction with Linda J. Halvorson of Oxford University Press in 1990, this Companion has been an extensive project. Nearly a decade in the making, it involved the work of hundreds of scholars and other professionals, whose efforts I greatly appreciate. First, for their invaluable assistance, I want to thank my fellow section editors—Fred Anderson, Lynn Eden, Joseph T. Glatthaar, and Ronald H. Spector. In addition, members of the Advisory Board offered extraordinarily helpful advice as we sought to bring to a broad audience the latest scholarship from a wide range of fields.

Planning and implementing such an undertaking benefited not simply from the knowledge of those on the Companion's Editorial and Advisory Boards and from Oxford University Press, but also from numerous other scholars. We often drew upon those in the Army's Center of Military History, the Inter‐University Seminar on the Armed Forces and Society, the Marine Corps Historical Center, the Navy Historical Center, the Office of Air Force History, the Organization of American Historians, the Peace History Society, the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, and the Society for Military History. We called upon independent scholars, members of the armed forces, and faculty at college and universities around the world. A number of individuals interrupted their own work to provide invaluable advice on the project whenever needed. Among these stalwarts were Dean C. Allard, Harriet Hyman Alonso, Stephen E. Ambrose, Edward M. Coffman, Graham A. Cosmas, Richard H. Kohn, Allan R. Millett, Charles C. Moskos, Carol M. Petillo, Alex Roland, and Edwin Howard Simmons. At a crucial period, G. Kurt Piehler helped out by serving as consulting editor.

Hundreds of authors contributed the over 1,000 articles in this volume. A separate list of contributors provides the names and institutional affiliations of these authors, whose scholarship, learning, and erudition made this volume possible. This book is a tribute to the strong support that colleagues in many different branches, fields, and disciplines gave to the project.

Coordinating such an enterprise and shepherding it through to production required a sustained effort by the Trade Reference Department of Oxford University Press (USA). After the initial exploration of the concept and systematic entry development with Linda Halvorson, then executive editor, and Marion Osmun, the first development editor assigned to the project, progress over the next nine years was guided sequentially by developmental editors Mark Cummings, John Drexel, and Liz Sonneborn, and then by a series of project editors: Anita Vanca, Hannah Borgeson, and, in 1998–99, Catherine E. Carter, who completed the monumental task of bringing the manuscript into production. Anne Adelman did the copyediting; Suzanne Gilad and Maine Proofreading Services read the proofs; Mary Neal Meador designed and typeset the interior of the book; Sonny Mui designed the cover; Gary S. Tong created the maps; Adam B. Bohannon, Elizabeth Szaluta, and Kelly Trezza guided it through the final stages of production. I would also like to thank Marjorie Mueller, Director of Subsidiary Rights at Oxford. In 1998, Nancy Toff succeeded Linda Halvorson as head of Oxford's Trade Reference Department and provided overall super vision for the final publication of the book in November 1999. Sincerest thanks to all who worked on making this volume an important contribution to the understanding of war, peace, and the military in American history.

John Whiteclay Chambers II

Editor in Chief

May 1999

About the Editors

Editor in Chief

John Whiteclay Chambers II is Professor of History and former Chair of the History Department at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. He received his Ph.D. in History from Columbia University (1973), where he then taught for ten years. He has written To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987), which won the Distinguished Book Award from the Society for Military History, and The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (1992); he is completing a book titled All Quiet on the Western Front: The 1930 Motion Picture and the Image of World War I (forthcoming, 2000). He is the editor or co‐editor of Three Generals on War (1973); Draftees or Volunteers (1975); American History (1983); The Eagle and the Dove (1991); The New Conscientious Objection (1993); World War II, Film, and History (1996); and Major Problems in American Military History (1998).

Editors

Fred Anderson is Associate Professor of History at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He served in the U.S. Army from 1973 to 1975 and in 1981 received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. He is the author of several scholarly articles and two books—A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years' War (1984) and The Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766 (forthcoming, 2000).

Lynn Eden is Senior Research Scholar at the Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University. She received her Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Michigan (1985), was a Social Science Research Council–MacArthur Foundation Fellow in International Peace and Security (1986–87), and taught in the Department of History at Carnegie Mellon University. Eden has written Crisis in Watertown: The Polarizaion of an American Community (1972; nominated for the 1973 National Book Award); co‐authored Witness in Philadelphia (1977; Book‐of‐the‐Month‐Club alternate selection); and co‐edited Nuclear Arguments: Understanding the Strategic Nuclear Arms and Arms Controls Debates (1989). She is completing a book entitled Constructing Deconstruction: Organizations, Knowledge, and the Effects of Nuclear Weapons (forthcoming).

Joseph T. Glatthaar is Professor of History at the University of Houston. He received his Ph.D. in History from the University of Wisconsin‐Madison and is the author of numerous articles and three books—Forged in Battle (1991), Partners in Command (1993), and The March to the Sea and Beyond (1995). He has also taught at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College and the U.S. Army War College.

Ronald H. Spector is Professor of History and International Relations at George Washington University. He has been a senior Fulbright Lecturer in India and Israel. During 1995–96 he was Distinguished Visiting Professor of Strategy at the National War College. He is the author of five books, the most recent of which are Eagle Against the Sun: The American War With Japan (1985) and After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam (1994). Professor Spector is a retired Lieutenant Colonel in the U.S. Marine Corps Reserve.

Consulting Editor

G. Kurt Piehler is Assistant Professor of History and Director of the Center for the study of War and Society at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He is author of Remembering War the American Way (1995) and co‐editor of Major Problems in American Military History (1999). His articles have appeared in History of Education Quarterly, Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries, and the anthology Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity (1994). As director (1994–98) of the Rutgers Oral History Archives of World War II, he conducted over 200 interviews with veterans of this conflict. His televised lecture “The War That Transformed a Generation,” which drew on the Oral History Archives, appeared on the History Channel in 1997. A Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Drew University (1982), he received his Ph.D. from Rutgers in 1990.