Words to Know

a

appropriations bill: A bill, or law, that assigns money to a government department or agency.

Articles of Confederation: The document that established the federal government for the United States of America from 1781 to 1789.

b

bicameralism: The practice of dividing the legislative, or lawmaking, power of government into two chambers.

Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, proposed in 1789 and adopted in 1791. The Bill of Rights contains some of the rights of citizens of the United States of America.

c

cabinet: A group of executive officials who advise the president on important policy matters and decisions. By law, the cabinet includes the heads of the executive departments. Presidents can also include other important executive officials in their cabinets, such as the vice president.

casework: Work that a member of Congress does to help a voter with a personal governmental problem.

checks and balances: The specific powers in one branch of government that allow it to limit the powers of the other branches.

circuit court of appeals: A court in the federal judicial system that handles appeals from the trial courts, called federal district courts. The United States is divided into twelve geographic areas called circuits, and each circuit has one court of appeals that handles appeals from the federal district courts in its circuit. A party who loses in a circuit court of appeals may ask the Supreme Court to review the case.

civil case: A case that involves a dispute between private parties or a noncriminal dispute between a private party and a government.

cloture rule: A rule that allows senators to end a filibuster, or prolonged speech, by a vote of three-fifths of the Senate.

common law: A law developed by judges in England and America on a case-by-case basis for governing relationships between private parties. Examples of common law include contract law and tort law.

Congress: The legislative, or lawmaking, branch of the federal government. Congress has two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives.

constituents: The voters who are in a representative's district or a senator's state.

Constitution of the United States of America: The document written in 1787 that established the federal government under which the United States of America has operated since 1789. Article I covers the legislative branch, Article II covers the executive branch, and Article III covers the judicial branch.

Constitutional Convention of 1787: Convention held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from May to September 1787, during which delegates from twelve of the thirteen American states wrote a new Constitution for the United States.

Continental Congress: The main body of American government from 1774 until 1779.

courts of appeals: Federal appellate courts that review district court trials to correct serious errors made by judges and juries.

criminal case: A case in which a person is charged with violating a criminal law.

d

district courts: The courts in the federal judicial system that handle trials in civil and criminal cases. Each state is divided into one or more federal judicial districts, and each district has one or more federal district courts. A party who loses in a federal district court may appeal to have the case reviewed by a circuit court of appeals.

e

executive branch: The branch of the federal government that enforces the nation's laws. The executive branch includes the president, the vice president, and many executive departments, agencies, and offices.

executive departments: Departments in the executive branch responsible for large areas of the federal government. As of 2005, there are fifteen departments: Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, Transportation, Treasury, and Veterans Affairs. The heads of the departments, called secretaries, make up the president's cabinet.

executive privilege: A privilege that allows the president to keep information secret, even if Congress, federal investigators, the Supreme Court, or the people want the president to release the information. The privilege is designed to protect information related to national security, or public safety.

f

federalism: A principle of government under which independent states join to form a central government to serve their collective needs.

filibuster: A tactic used by one or more senators who speak for a prolonged period of time so that the time for considering a bill runs out before a vote can be taken on the Senate floor.

Founding Fathers: General term for the men who founded the United States of America and designed its government. The term includes the men who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the Constitution of the United States in 1787.

i

impoundment: The presidential practice of refusing to spend money that Congress appropriates for an executive department, agency, or program.

income tax: A tax on the money and property that a person earns during the year.

Interstate Commerce Clause: The clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that gives Congress the power "to regulate commerce ... among the several states."

iron triangle: The three-way relationship between congressional committees, executive agencies, and private interest groups that all specialize in the same area of government.

j

judge: A public official who presides over a court and who often decides questions brought before him or her.

judicial interpretation: The process by which federal courts interpret the meaning of laws passed by Congress.

judicial review: The process by which federal courts review laws to determine whether they violate the U.S. Constitution. If a court finds that a law violates the Constitution, it declares the law unconstitutional, which means the executive branch is not supposed to enforce it anymore. Congress can correct such a defect by passing a new law that does not violate the Constitution.

judiciary: The branch of the federal government that decides cases that arise under the nation's law. The federal judiciary includes the Supreme Court of the United States, circuit courts of appeals, and federal district courts.

justice: One of nine jurists who serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. The chief justice serves as the head of the Supreme Court; the other eight are called associate justices.

l

legislative courts: Courts created by Congress to handle some of its lawmaking powers under Article I of the U.S. Constitution.

lobbying: Meeting with members of Congress to convince them to pass laws that will benefit businesses, citizen's groups, or other organizations.

m

monarchy: A government under which power is held by a monarch, such as a king or queen, who inherits power by birth or takes it by force.

n

natural law: The idea that human laws must conform to a higher law—one of nature, often believed to come from God.

Necessary and Proper Clause: The clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that gives Congress the power "to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper" for exercising the other powers of the federal government.

p

personnel floor: A congressional minimum on the number of employees a governmental department, agency, or program must employ.

plutocracy: A government under which power is held by the wealthy class of society.

president: The highest officer in the executive branch of the federal government, with primary responsibility for enforcing the nation's laws.

q

quorum: The number of members of Congress who must be present for Congress to conduct business, such as voting on bills. The U.S. Constitution says a chamber has a quorum when a simple majority of its members is present.

r

ratification: The process of formally approving something, such as a treaty, constitution, or constitutional amendment.

reception provisions: Laws passed by some of the new American states around 1776 to define which parts of the common law, English statutes, and colonial statutes continued to apply in the states after they separated from Great Britain.

reprogramming: The practice of using money that Congress appropriates to one governmental program for a different program.

republicanism: Theory of government under which power is held by the people, who elect public servants to represent them in the bodies of government.

s

separation of powers: Division of the powers of government into different branches to prevent one branch from having too much power.

suffrage: The right to vote.

Supreme Court: The highest court in the federal judiciary. The judiciary is the branch of government responsible for resolving legal disputes and interpreting laws on a case-by-case basis.

u

unicameralism: The practice of placing the legislative, or lawmaking, power of government in one chamber.

v

veto: Rejection of a bill, or proposed law, by the president of the United States. If the president vetoes a bill, it does not become law unless two-thirds of both chambers of Congress vote to override the veto.

vice president: The second highest officer in the executive branch of the federal government. The vice president replaces the president if the president dies or becomes unable to serve. The vice president also serves as president of the Senate, with power to break tie votes when the whole Senate is equally divided on an issue.