The table on the pages that follow lists vitamins, their food sources, and adverse effects of over-consumption. The table gives recommended intake (RDA) and—a feature not available in previous RDA lists—shows tolerable upper levels that readers can use as a guideline to prevent excess consumption.
The reference values are referred to collectively as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) and include Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), Adequate Intake (AI), and the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL). A requirement, which can vary depending on age, gender, and life stage, is defined as the lowest continuing intake level of a nutrient that will maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual. (The nutrient levels published in the DRI reports apply to the healthy general population. They are not expected to be sufficient for individuals who are already malnourished, nor would they be adequate for disease states known to have increased nutrient requirements.)
The table was developed by the Institute of Medicine's Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, in cooperation with Health Canada. In 1995 the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine—part of the National Academy of Sciences—appointed the committee to replace the tenth (1989) edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) document.
|
Dietary reference intakes: Vitamins
|
|
Nutrient
|
Function
|
Life stage group
|
RDA/AI*
|
UL
a
|
Selected food sources
|
Adverse effects of excessive consumption
|
Special considerations
|
|
Biotin
|
Coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids
|
Infants
|
(μg/d)
|
|
Liver and smaller amounts in fruits and meats
|
No adverse effects of biotin in humans or animals were found. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of biotin are limited, caution may be warranted.
|
None
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
5*
|
NDb
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
7–12 mo
|
6*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
8*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
12*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
20*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
25*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
20*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
25*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
30*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
35*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
35*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
35*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
Choline
|
Precursor for acetylcholine, phospholipids, and betaine
|
Infants
|
(mg/d)
|
(mg/d)
|
Milk, liver, eggs, peanuts
|
Fishy body odor, sweating, salivation, hypotension, hepatotoxicity
|
Individuals with trimethylaminuria, renal disease, liver disease, depression, and Parkinson's disease may be at risk of adverse effects with choline intakes at the UL.
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
125*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
7–12 mo
|
150*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
200*
|
1000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
250*
|
1000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
375*
|
2000
|
|
|
Although AIs have been set for choline there are few data to assess whether a dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages.
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
550*
|
3000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
375*
|
2000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
400*
|
3000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
425*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
425*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
425*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
425*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
450*
|
3000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
450*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
450*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
550*
|
3000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
550*
|
3500
|
|
|
|
|
[continued]
|
|
Dietary reference intakes: Vitamins
|
|
Nutrient
|
Function
|
Life stage group
|
RDA/AI*
|
ULa
|
Selected food sources
|
Adverse effects of excessive consumption
|
Special considerations
|
|
Folate
|
Coenzyme in the metabolism of nucleic and amino acids; prevents megaloblastic anemia
|
Infants
|
(μg/d)
|
(μg/d)
|
Enriched cereal grains, dark leafy vegetables, enriched and whole-grain breads and bread products, fortified ready-to-eat cereals
|
Masks neurological complication in people with vitamin B12 deficiency.
|
In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 μg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet.
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
65*
|
ND
b
|
|
|
|
|
Also known as: Folic acid Folacin Pteroylpoly-glutamates
|
|
7–12 mo
|
80*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
No adverse effects associated with folate from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of folate are limited, caution may be warranted.
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
150
|
300
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
200
|
400
|
|
|
|
|
Note: Given as a dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 μg food folate = 0.6 μg of folate from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 μg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach.
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
300
|
600
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
400
|
800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
The UL for folate applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements and/or fortified foods.
|
It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 μg from supplements of fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube.
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
300
|
600
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
400
|
800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
400
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
600
|
800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
600
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
600
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 18 y
|
500
|
800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
500
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
500
|
1,000
|
|
|
|
|
Niacin
|
Coenzyme or cosubstrate in many biological reduction and oxidation reactions—thus required for energy metabolism
|
Infants
|
(mg/d)
|
(mg/d)
|
Meat, fish, poultry, enriched and whole-grain breads and bread products, fortified ready-to-eat cereals
|
There is no evidence of adverse effects from the consumption of naturally occuring niacin in foods.
|
Extra niacin may be required by persons treated with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, or those with malabsorption syndrome.
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
2*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
Includes nicotinic acid amide, nicotinic acid (pyridine-3-carboxylic acid) and derivatives that exhibit the biological activity of nicotinamide.
|
|
7–12 mo
|
4*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
6
|
10
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
8
|
15
|
|
Adverse effects from niacin-containing supplements may include flushing and and gastrointestinal distress.
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
12
|
20
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
16
|
30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
16
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
Note: Given as niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of trytophan; 0–6 months = preformed niacin (not NE).
|
|
31–50 y
|
16
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
16
|
35
|
|
The UL for niacin applies to synthetic forms obtained from supplements, fortified foods, or a combination of the two.
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
16
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
12
|
20
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
14
|
30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
14
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
14
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
14
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
14
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
18
|
30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
18
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
18
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
17
|
30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
17
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
17
|
35
|
|
|
|
|
[continued]
|
|
Dietary reference intakes: Vitamins
|
|
Nutrient
|
Function
|
Life stage group
|
RDA/AI*
|
ULa
|
Selected food sources
|
Adverse effects of excessive consumption
|
Special considerations
|
|
Pantothenic Acid
|
Coenzyme in fatty acid metabolism numerous redox reactions
|
Infants
|
(mg/d)
|
(mg/d)
|
Chicken, beef, potatoes, oats, cereals, tomato products, liver, kidney, yeast, egg yolk, broccoli, whole grains
|
No adverse effects associated with pantothenic acid from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of pantothenic acid are limited, caution may be warranted.
|
None
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
1.7*
|
ND
b
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
7–12 mo
|
1.8*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
2*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
3*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
4*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
4*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
5*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
6*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
6*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
6*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
7*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
7*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
7*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
Riboflavin
|
Coenzyme in
|
Infants
|
(mg/d)
|
(mg/d)
|
Organ meats, milk, bread products, and fortified cereals
|
No adverse effects associated with riboflavin consumption from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of riboflavin are limited, caution may be warranted.
|
None
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
0.3*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
Also known as: Vitamin B2
|
|
7–12 mo
|
0.4*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
0.5
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
0.6
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
0.9
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
1.3
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.3
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.3
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
1.3
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
1.3
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
0.9
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
1.0
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
1.6
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.6
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.6
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
[continued]
|
|
Dietary reference intakes: Vitamins
|
|
Nutrient
|
Function
|
Life stage group
|
RDA/AI*
|
ULa
|
Selected food sources
|
Adverse effects of excessive consumption
|
Special considerations
|
|
Thiamin
|
Coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched-chain amino acids
|
Infants
|
(mg/d)
|
|
Enriched, fortified, or whole-grain products; bread and bread products, mixed foods whose main ingredient is grain, and ready-to-eat cereals
|
No adverse effects associated with thiamin from food or supplements have been reported. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data on the adverse effects of thiamin acid are limited, caution may be warranted.
|
Person, who may have increased needs for thiamin include those being treated with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, or individuals with malabsorption syndrome.
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
0.2*
|
ND
b
|
|
|
|
|
Also known as: Vitamin B1 Aneurin
|
|
7–12 mo
|
0.3*
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
0.5
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
0.6
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
0.9
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
1.2
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.2
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.2
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
1.2
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
1.2
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
0.9
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
1.0
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
1.1
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 18 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 18 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1.4
|
ND
|
|
|
|
|
Vitamin A
|
Required for normal vision, gene expression, reproduction, embryonic development and immune function
|
Infants
|
(μg/d)
|
(μg/d)
|
Liver, dairy products, fish
|
Teratological effects, liver toxicity
|
Individuals with high alcohol intake, pre-existing liver disease, hyperlipidemia, or severe protein mal-nutrition may be distinctly susceptible to the adverse effects of excess preformed vitamin A intake.
|
|
|
|
0–6 mo
|
400*
|
600
|
|
|
|
|
Includes pro-vitamin A carotenoids that are dietary precursors of retinol
|
|
7–12 mo
|
500*
|
600
|
|
|
Note: from preformed Vitamin A only.
|
|
|
|
Children
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1–3 y
|
300
|
600
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4 –8 y
|
400
|
900
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Note: Given as retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 μg retinol, 12 μg β-carotene, 24 μg -carotene, or 24 μg α-crytoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from REs of provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supplements and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1RAE.
|
|
9–13 y
|
600
|
1,700
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
900
|
2,800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
900
|
3,000
|
|
|
β-carotene supplements are advised only to serve as a provitamin A source for individuals at risk of vitamin A deficiency.
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
900
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
900
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
900
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Females
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
9–13 y
|
600
|
1,700
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14–18 y
|
700
|
2,800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
700
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
700
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
50–70 y
|
700
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
> 70 y
|
700
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Pregnancy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
750
|
2,800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
770
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
770
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Lactation
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
≤ 18 y
|
1,200
|
2,800
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
19–30 y
|
1,300
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
31–50 y
|
1,300
|
3,000
|
|
|
|
|
[continued]
|
|
Dietary reference intakes: Vitamins
|
|
Nutrient
|
Function
|
Life stage group
|
RDA/AI*
|
ULa
|
