Encyclopedia of Food & Culture | Sunni Islam

"Islam" comes from the Arabic word meaning 'peace' and 'submission'. For Muslims around the world it is a way of life requiring absolute submission to the will of God. Islam dates from 622 C.E. and is based on the prophetic revelations of Muhammad. From its Middle Eastern roots Islam has spread around the world and, with over a billion followers, is the second largest of the world's religions, after Christianity. About 15 percent of Muslims live in the Arab world and another 25 percent in Africa. Substantial parts of Asia are predominantly Muslim, with Indonesia having the largest Muslim community. There are also significant Muslim populations in Europe and the Americas. The three main Islamic sects are the Sunni, who comprise about 90 percent of all Muslims, Shiʿites, and Sufis. In addition, there are numerous small sects and subsects, such as Ahmaddis, ʿAlawites, and Wahhabis, that differ in degrees of orthodoxy and practice.

Although they accept the divine status of the Jewish and Christian revelations, Muslims believe that Muhammad was the "Seal of the Prophets," the last of God's messengers. The word of God as revealed to Muhammad is recorded in the Holy Qurʾan, the infallible guide to Muslim conduct. Further guidance is provided by the sunna, the authoritative example of the Prophet, whose words and deeds are recorded in the hadith (literally 'tiding' or 'information'; more broadly 'every word, deed, and approval attributed to Muhammad'). "Sunni," derived from "sunna," describes allegiance to the ways of the Prophet. Within the Sunni tradition there are four schools of jurisprudence (Hanifis, Malikis, Shafis, Hanbalis) that differ in their interpretations and applications of religious law, including some minor issues related to food.

Role of Food in Religious Tradition

Prior to the advent of Muhammad, food practices among the Arab peoples of the Middle East were diverse. The establishment of common Islamic food laws united these diverse groups, at the same time differentiating the new religion from Judaism. In several places in the Qurʾan, Muhammad refers to the restrictive food laws of the Jews as a burden imposed on them for sins, noting that there were few food restrictions prior to the revelation of the Torah (4:160; 6:146). While he retained certain elements of Jewish food law, such as the prohibition on pork, Muhammad proclaimed food as a general beneficence, a gift from God to be enjoyed by His people without undue burden. "O ye who believe! Eat of the good things that We have provided you, and be grateful to Allah if it is Him ye worship" (2:172).

Islamic laws regarding food are found particularly in three Qurʾanic suras (chapters), The Cow (2), The Table (5), and Cattle (6), respectively. In addition, the sayings and actions of Muhammad, as recorded in the hadith, provide detailed guidance to acceptable food practices. Food is classified as lawful (halal) or unlawful (haram). Between these is the category of doubtful or suspect (mashbooh). Halal signifies food that is acceptable in the sight of God; it includes all food that is not classified as haram or mashbooh: milk from cows, sheep, camels, and goats, honey, fish, vegetables, fruit, legumes, nuts, and grains. Most animals are halal: "Lawful unto you (for food) are all four-footed animals, with the exceptions named" (5:1). However, to be halal, meat must come from animals slaughtered ritually in a way (similar to Jewish practice) intended to spare them unnecessary suffering. The words "Bismillah. Allah Akbar" ("I begin with God's name: God is great") are pronounced over the animal as its throat is slit, allowing the blood to drain. In fact, kosher food is generally acceptable to Sunni Muslims: "The food of the People of the Book is lawful for you, and yours is lawful unto them" (5.5). Also, similar to kosher practice, in the marketplace meats and other products are certified halal by authoritative Islamic agencies and are stamped with a halal seal.

The opposite of halal is haram food—that which is unacceptable. Pork is the preeminent example of a haram food, the only meat specifically forbidden in the Qurʾan. Blood, and that which dies naturally (carrion), as well as food over which any other name than God's has been invoked, are haram (5.3). Also prohibited in the hadith are flesh of the ass, carnivorous animals, such as the tiger, fox, dog, and leopard, which kill prey by using their paws, and birds of prey. Fish must be alive when taken from the sea or river, and only fish that have fins and scales are allowed, which excludes shellfish and eels. Shrimp are generally considered halal; however there is some disagreement over this within the Hanafi school of jurisprudence. Land animals without ears, such as frogs and snakes, are prohibited. Foods contaminated by haram substances themselves become haram. Alcohol is haram, along with other mind-altering substances. However, there are several references to wine in the Qurʾan that illustrate changing attitudes toward alcohol: wine is acknowledged to have some benefit, but which is outweighed by harm (2:219); believers are exhorted not to pray while under the influence of intoxicants (4:43); and it is expressly prohibited as "an abomination of Satan's handiwork" (5:90). The latter, together with guidance found in the hadith, forms the basis for most modern interpretations, which view alcohol as both morally and socially unacceptable. Other intoxicants that cloud the mind are also forbidden, though this is a gray area. For example, the chewing of qat ("khat," Catha edulis), a plant whose leaves contain a mild stimulant, is common in Yemen. Coffee consumption has also been controversial at times, though sixteenth-century attempts to ban it proved impossible to enforce. While coffee is a symbol of hospitality in some Arab countries, it may be avoided by devout Muslims. It is worth noting though that some Muslims, notably Sufis, interpret the Qurʾanic verses in other ways and do not prohibit wine. Wine drinking is also acceptable to 'Alawites, especially in a sacramental context.

If a person is uncertain whether a food is halal or haram, then it is mashbooh—doubtful or suspect—and should be avoided. Ingredients such as emulsifiers, gelatin, and enzymes used in processed foods fall into this category as the animal origin of the constituents may be unknown. Some food manufacturers and Islamic authorities produce lists of foods and ingredients classified as halal or haram as a guide to food choice.

There are regional, social, familial, and individual variations in the strictness with which food laws are adhered to. Some Chinese Muslims, for example, openly consume pork. Concern for one's health or obligations stemming from hospitality are reasons for transgressing normative food behaviors. "But if one is forced by necessity [to eat forbidden foods], without wilful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits—then is he guiltless. For Allah is Oft-forgiving Most Merciful" (2:173).

Fasting and Feasting

Fasting (sawm) is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and, as such, is an important religious duty. Muslim fasts require complete abstention from food and drink between the hours of sunrise and sunset. Fasting at different times of year may be obligatory (wajib), recommended (mustahab), discouraged (makruh), or forbidden (muharam). The main obligatory fast of the Muslim calendar is that of Ramadan, which lasts for the entire month. Also obligatory is fasting for kaffarah—atonement for infractions of the Ramadan fast—and fasts made in fulfillment of vows. Fasting is considered mustahab on all days of the year on which it has not been prohibited. It is specifically stressed for the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth of each month in imitation of the Prophet, and on Mondays and Thursdays. Ashura is a one-day fast held on the tenth day of Muhurram, instituted by Muhammad in imitation of the Jewish holiday Pesach (Passover), which marks the delivery of the children of Israel from the Pharoah. Although Ashura was replaced in the second year of Muhammad's dispensation by Ramadan, it remains as an optional fast.

It is makruh to single out Fridays and Saturdays (the Muslim and Jewish Sabbaths) for fasting or to fast on the day preceding Ramadan or on Naw Rouz. Fasting is muharam on the days of the ʿId al-Fitr and ʿId al-Adha festivals. To be valid, fasting must be undertaken with correct spiritual intent (niyyah), which should be renewed each day. Fasting is incumbent on all sane adult Muslims, with exemptions made for pregnant, nursing, and menstruating women, for travelers, and for those in ill health. The exceptions are seen as evidence of the statement that Allah does not want to place an undue burden on His people (2:185). Deliberate infractions of the Ramadan fast are subject to either kaffarah (atonement) or qada (restitution), though unintentional lapses are not punished. Some differences exist between schools of jurisprudence as to the detailed practices and penalties associated with fasting. For example, Sunnis may break the fast if they suffer acute hunger; Shiʿites may not unless there is risk of illness.

Certain foods have a particular symbolic value because they recall the practices of Muhammad. Thus, fasts are traditionally broken with dates and water, followed by lentil soup and often a salad before the main course, which is more a matter of local custom.

Holidays and Festivals

During the Ramadan fast Muslims may consume more food than at other times of the year, for Ramadan is an essentially joyous occasion, a time for giving thanks to God. Feasting in the evening is common, and special foods are commonly prepared at family and community meals. Ramadan food specialities vary across Islamic cultures, for example, Syrian shakreeyeh (lamb in minty yogurt sauce), Turkish kaahk Ramazan (sourdough crescent rolls), and Moroccan harira (lamb and lentil stew).

At the close of Ramadan comes the three-day festival of ʿId al-Fitr, commonly known as "Sweet Id." The celebration is a way of thanking Allah for providing Muslims with the strength to have fasted successfully, and it is marked with feasting and gift-giving. It is characterized by the serving of sweet dishes, such as sawaiyan, a fine vermicelli boiled with milk and sugar. In Malaysia, ketupat, rice cooked in coconut leaves, and rendang, a spicy beef dish, are prepared especially for this occasion. ʿId al-Adha, the feast of sacrifice, occurs at the end of the pilgrimage to Mecca. It was previously a four-day festival, now much diminished, in which all adult male Muslims sacrificed a lamb, goat, or cow. Islamic prescriptions require that the sacrificial meat be divided into three equal portions: one for the family, one for friends, relatives, and neighbors, and one for charity. This is in remembrance of God's mercy in allowing Abraham to sacrifice a ram instead of his son, Ishmael. Ashura is a joyous occasion for Sunnis, though it is a solemn historical remembrance for Shiʿites.

See also Africa: North Africa; Asia, Central; Christianity; Fasting and Abstinence; Feasts, Festivals, and Fasts; Holidays; Iberian Peninsula; Iran; Judaism; Middle East; Religion and Food.

Paul Fieldhouse