America: Pathways to the Present | Chapter 2: Balancing Liberty and Order (1753–1820)
The second chapter is considered a review and covers key moments in the founding of the United States, the development of its government, and its early political growth up through the War of 1812. It is divided into three sections: The Road to Independence, the Constitution of the United States, and the Origins of American Politics.
Section 1: The Road to Independence
Main Ideas
- Grievances against the British government, as well as Enlightenment philosophies of equality and self-government, led to the American Revolutionary War.
- Ideas put forth in the Declaration of Independence and the colonists’ eventual success in the Revolutionary War irrevocably changed the world.
Summary and Analysis
By 1754, there were already some tensions beginning to show in the American colonists’ relationship with Britain, France, and the Native Americans. This soon erupted into the French and Indian War, which lasted for nine years until 1763. Tempers flared as the British attempted to tax the colonies without representation to help pay for the cost of the war. The British Parliament enacted such legislation as the Stamp act, a tax on printed materials, and the Townsend Acts, a tax on tea and other products. The resulting hostility from the colonies sparked boycotts, the Boston Massacre (in which British soldiers killed five men), and the Boston Tea Party where colonial rebels dumped literally tons of tea into the harbor. Hostilities reached a decisive moment on April 18, 1775, when the British marched to Lexington and Concord and found armed militia waiting for them. The first shot of that battle has been justly called the “Shot Heard Round the World.” The American Revolutionary War had begun.
In 1774, the First Continental Congress tried to take unified action for the colonies, but the time was not yet right. In 1776, the Second Continental Congress gathered in Philadelphia. Taking inspiration from the incendiary work Common Sense by Thomas Paine, the Congress decided that it was time for the colonists to separate from England. Thomas Jefferson led the group of men who produced the Declaration of Independence. The document declared the colony’s freedom and defined the basic principles on which American society and government would be based.
The document was all well and good, but in order to give it true meaning, the new country would need to defeat the strongest army on earth. And in retrospect, the colonists had every chance of doing so: they had superb leadership under George Washington, intimate familiarity with the terrain, small and mobile forces that could disperse at will, and the help of the French. The war not only established American independence but inspired a great patriotism for the country and spread the ideal of liberty to Europe. Jefferson’s assertion that “all men are created equal” continues to change the world even to the present day.
Section 2: The Constitution of the United States
Main Ideas
- America, a fledgling nation, needed a strong central government if it was going to survive.
- The Constitutional Convention drafted a new plan of government unlike any before on earth—the United States Constitution.
- The Constitution was ratified after the promise to add a Bill of Rights.
Summary and Analysis
Through the Revolutionary War and for a short time beyond, the country was governed under a document called the Articles of Confederation. Under the Articles, most of the political power in the nation belonged to the states. However, it was soon discovered that the document did not give enough power to the federal government; delegates of the Constitutional Convention were called upon to amend the Articles of Confederation. However, the members of the convention quickly discovered that an amendment was not what was needed. Instead, they created a new government incorporating the ideals of both a democracy and a republic in such an innovative and flexible manner that it still stands today.
The key delegate at the convention was James Madison, who took the lead in “deciding the fate of republican government” as the United States Constitution was shaped. None of the men present at the Convention was at all sure that they could succeed in creating a government acceptable to so many diverse states. Many compromises were made, including the Great Compromise that provided for a two-house legislature: the House of Representatives (with representation based on population) and the Senate (with equal representation from all states). The final document provided for the separation of powers with a checks and balance system so no single branch of government—executive, legislative, or judicial—attained too much power.
The new Constitution had to be ratified by nine of the thirteen colonies to become law. After an intense battle between the Federalists (who were for the Constitution) and the Anti-Federalists (who were against the Constitution), the Constitution was ratified in 1788. A promised Bill of Rights was added in 1791. As expected, George Washington was unanimously elected as the first president, but such unilateral sentiment did not last long. Political parties with partisan interests quickly began forming before Washington left office.
Section 3: The Origins of American Politics
Main Ideas
- Debates concerning the value of liberty versus the value of order led to the formation of political parties.
- The nation became more firmly established after power passed peacefully from one political power to another.
- The country expanded westward and went to war with Britain.
Summary and Analysis
Two political parties quickly established themselves once the universally loved George Washington left office. The first party, led by John Adams, supported a “loose construction” of the Constitution and believed that the Federal government was entitled to use the implied powers of the document. The opposing party, led by Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, believed in a "strict construction" of the Constitution and thought the government should use implied powers only in moments of greatest need. Another disagreement between the two parties was Adams’ tendency to support and befriend Britain, while Jefferson leaned towards France. Strangely enough, because of early election rules, Adams was elected the second President of the United States with Jefferson as Vice President, and they spent four years disagreeing on everything.
Several difficulties during Adams’ term of office, including the infamous XYZ Affair and the passage of the Alien and Sedition Act, which limited free speech, hurt Adams’ chances for re-election. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson took office as the third President of the United States. The peaceful passage of power was key in establishing the strength of the Constitution.
During his term in office, Jefferson (the “strict constructionist”) used implied powers in at least one important instance. He completed the Louisiana Purchase from France, nearly doubling the size of the country. Jefferson’s term in office also saw the Supreme Court case of Marbury vs. Madison, which established the precedent of judicial review: federal courts were granted the power to review state laws and court decisions to see if they are Constitutional. Jefferson also indirectly led the country into the War of 1812
with his Embargo Act of 1807, which outlawed most trade with foreign countries.
The country entered the War of 1812 under James Madison, the fourth President of the United States. The war was another test of the new country’s strength and it held its own despite having a small army and navy. America and Britain eventually signed the Treaty of Ghent, ending a conflict that neither side had really wanted. After the war ended, new issues began to occupy the minds of many Americans, including an economic depression and a bitter debate over slavery, which resulted in the Missouri Compromise of 1820.
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