America: Pathways to the Present | Chapter 12: The World War I Era (1914–1920)
This chapter discusses America’s involvement in World War I. The United States emerged from World War I as an unparalleled world power. The chapter is divided into five sections: The Road to War, the United States Declares War, Americans on the European Front, Americans on the Home Front, and Global Peacemaker.
Section 1: The Road to War
Main Ideas
- World War I had several long- and short-term causes: imperialism, militarism, nationalism, and a tangled system of alliances that caused the war to expand quickly.
- The United States tried hard to remain neutral in the early years of the war.
Summary and Analysis
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria made a state visit to Sarajevo in Bosnia. He was assassinated, and his assassination ignited World War I, which was to be called by its participants The War to End All Wars. At the time of Ferdinand’s death, Europe was a powder keg waiting to explode. One of the reasons for this volatile situation was the imperialism of the late 1800s that had sent European nations vying against each other to gain colonies. Other causes included an increase in nationalism, the belief in the superiority of one’s nation or ethnic group; militarism, an increase in the interest and money spent on developing armies and weapons; and finally, alliances, a web of secret agreements between countries to come to each others aid in time of war.
Thus when the Archduke was assassinated and Serbia was threatened with war by Austria-Hungary, Russia came to her aid, mobilizing for war. In a domino effect, Germany declared war on Russia, and France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. Soon Italy, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were drawn into the war. Those uniting with Russia, France, and Great Britain were called the Allies. The Germans and Austrians were the main force of the Central Powers.
Although each side thought that victory would be swift, the war soon bogged down into a stalemate. New weapons and tactics made this war different from any pervious conflict. Machine guns, rapid-fire artillery, and poison gas could kill soldiers much more quickly and efficiently than men mounted on horseback with muskets or rifles ever could, so the war settled down into protective trenches on the edges of “no man’s lands.” The war became defensive in nature because offensive maneuvers were so deadly. On one day in the Battle of Somme in 1916, the British lost 20,000 men.
The United States wanted to remain neutral in the war, but even early on most Americans sympathized with the Allies for several reasons. Millions of Americans traced their roots to England and were also culturally connected to the British through language, literature, and culture. Others mistrusted Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany who was an autocratic ruler, suspicious to those who strongly believed in democracy. However they sympathized, most Americans wanted to remain neutral, but others wanted to be prepared for war, just in case, founding the National Security League to promote military readiness and patriotic sentiment. Some who were categorically against war founded a peace movement with groups such as the American Union Against Militarism.
Section 2: The United States Declares War
Main Idea
- German submarine warfare pushed American sentiment against Germany and brought the country into the World War I on the Allied side.
Summary and Analysis
The major factor that ended U.S. neutrality was the German use of submarine warfare. Submarines were a new weapon that could attack ships without warning. The Germans used their submarines, called U-boats, against any ship they thought might be helping the Allies, even passenger ships. On May 7, 1915, German U-boats torpedoed the Lusitania, a British passenger ship with 1,200 passengers. Among the dead passengers were 128 Americans. Their deaths caused outrage as the Germans were denounced as “barbarians.” In 1916, after much negotiating and broken promises, the Germans signed the Sussex pledge, promising to at least warn ships before attacking, giving them a chance to surrender. However, this pledge would soon be broken.
Another factor that helped to bring American sentiment to support the war was the Russian Revolution. Many Americans had been uncomfortable being allied with Russia, ruled by one of the most autocratic rulers on earth, so the early stages of the revolution were comforting to them. In addition, proof that Germany was strategizing against the United States came to national attention with the publication of the Zimmerman letter in which the Germans promised Mexico land in the southwest for attacking the United States. Nothing could have come of the offer because of Mexico’s poverty and internal warfare, but the note helped to sway public opinion. In April 1917, the United States formally declared war on Germany.
Section 3: Americans on the European Front
Main Ideas
- America was not immediately prepared to send troops and supplies to Europe. It took a major mobilization effort to gather and train the necessary soldiers.
- When America troops finally arrived in full force, they turned the tide of the war against the Central Powers.
Summary and Analysis
At the time of its declaration of war, the United States was not prepared to send a full army to the Allies. Congress quickly passed the Selective Service Act, which authorized a draft of young men for military service. By November, more than 24 million men had registered for the draft and 3 million were picked by lottery. These men, other volunteers, and the National Guard forces made up the American Expeditionary Force (AEF). Next, the men had to be trained and then sent in convoys to Europe.
The leader of the AEF was General John J. Pershing, a veteran of the Spanish-American War. General Pershing separated American troops from European troops to keep up morale and to feel free to pursue an offensive war. When the American troops finally arrived in Europe, the Germans were a mere fifty miles from Paris. The Americans attacked in force, digging no trenches to fall back on and standing firm. Americans also brought with them a new weapon, called the tank, which could cross trenches and roll through barbed wire. Soon the Central Powers collapsed in the face of Allied attack. German commanders sued for peace, but the Allies wanted a total surrender first. This surrender came in the form of an armistice signed on November 11, 1918.
While many thousands were killed on the battlefield in the last months of the war, a terrible strain of influenza swept through Europe, America, and the world, killing an estimated 30 million people worldwide. The flu epidemic added greatly to the casualties of the war. The physical and mental toll of the war ran deep. American losses were tiny when compared to Europe, which had lost or wounded essentially a generation of her men. The sick and wounded outnumbered the dead, and many would never return to full health. Millions were homeless, and many died of starvation and disease. The deaths had not ended, however, as the Ottomans deported and killed Armenians whom they suspected of disloyalty. This killing of hundreds of thousands of Armenians is the first recognized case of genocide.
Section 4: Americans on the Home Front
Main Ideas
- The war effort took the work and sacrifice of most Americans to succeed.
- The government took extraordinary steps to support the war effort.
Summary and Analysis
Mobilizing for war took most of America’s resources and many sacrifices. The war was financed in part through the sale of the Liberty bond, which was essentially borrowing money from the American citizens who would by the bonds at face value and then later turn them in for that value plus interest. Citizens were encouraged to “buy war bonds till it hurt.”
All American industries were asked to help in the effort by producing items for the war rather than for commercial sale. The War Industries Board controlled the natural resources and products that companies could use and make. The National War Labor Board worked to settle labor disputes so as not to disrupt the war effort, and the War Labor Policies Board set the working conditions in war industries. Many woman and African Americans contributed to the war effort by taking over the civilian jobs of departing soldiers.
All Americans were asked to contribute to the Home Front’s war effort by tightening their belts to save resources for the soldiers. They were asked to voluntarily ration their use of food, energy, and other material resources. Herbert Hoover, the head of the wartime Food Administration, hoped that appealing to the good will of Americans to make sacrifices would avoid the need of rationing food or other goods. Daylight Savings Time was instituted to save energy.
The war also increased American distrust of foreigners. Anti-German sentiment was high, and many Germans were harassed and some even lynched. Congress repressed civil liberties with the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act, which made it illegal to say anything disloyal against the United States. The Federal Government acted harshly against anyone it saw as impeding the war effort, including Socialists and other radicals.
Section 5: The Global Peacemaker
Main Ideas
- At the end of the war, President Wilson pressed for a treaty that would bring lasting peace to the post-war world.
- Wilson failed to attain many of his goals because of a lack of support from his own country as well as Britain and France.
Summary and Analysis
Woodrow Wilson was probably the most powerful man in the world when he went to the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. He had a Fourteen Point program that he believed would bring peace after the war. These points included the removal of trade barriers, the reduction of military forces, and the right of self-determination for ethnic groups. One of the most important points of Wilson’s program was a call for a League of Nations to ensure security and peace throughout the world.
Wilson did not achieve his goals at the conference. The French and British wanted to punish Germany for the war and called for large reparations, payments for damages during the war. Americans were afraid that Wilson’s League of Nations would get America involved in more foreign wars. The treaty that was finally put together included both the war reparations and the formation of the League of Nations. Wilson signed the Versailles Treaty, but his agreement had to be ratified by the U.S. Congress. He toured the country to win grass root support for the treaty, ruining his health to no avail. Congress did not ratify the treaty and made a separate peace with each of the Central Powers. Wilson had a stroke and ended his presidency as an invalid.
Because most European countries had been brought to the brink of destruction, America emerged from World War I with unprecedented power. However, most Americans merely wanted to go home and forget the war, although economic and social adjustment was difficult for both those who returned as well as for those who had changed their lives at home to support the war effort.
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