America: Pathways to the Present | Chapter 10: Becoming a World Power (1890–1915)
This chapter focuses on the period between 1890 and 1915, when the United States became increasingly involved in international affairs, especially in Central America, the Caribbean, and in the Pacific Islands. The chapter is divided into four sections: The Pressure to Expand, the Spanish-American War, a New Foreign Policy, and Debating America’s New Role.
Section 1: The Pressure to Expand
Main Idea
- In the late 1800s, the United States found itself under pressure to extend American influence abroad.
Summary and Analysis
Beginning in the late 1800s, the United States found itself under increasing pressure to expand its influence into the world arena. There were several reasons for this pressure. First, the late nineteenth century was one of unprecedented expansion of European countries as they vied for colonial territories worldwide. European nations such as Great Britain, France, and Germany were seeking to increase their natural resources and to satisfy nationalistic goals by bringing their culture, religion, and values to those they saw as inferior to themselves. This European colonial expansion both threatened and challenged the United States. Secondly, many saw expansion as a way to develop new markets for American products. A third pressure to expand came from the navy, which claimed it needed a stronger force to protect American interests abroad. But by 1900, the United States had developed one of the most powerful navies in the world, which suggested to others that the U.S. had the willingness and ability to compete on the open sea. Finally, some American leaders felt that America needed a new “frontier” to keep the “American Spirit” of nationalism strong; others felt that American expansion was a noble pursuit that would bring Christianity and modern civilization to the “heathen” peoples around the world. Gradually, Americans began to accept expansion as necessary and right. The United States would soon find itself involved in many difficult foreign conflicts.
Section 2: The Spanish-American War
Main Ideas
- The United States found itself drawn, against the will of many of its citizens, into the Spanish-American War, which resulted in the annexation of new territories.
- The U. S. also found itself increasingly involved in affairs of the Philippines, Hawaii, Samoa, and China.
Summary and Analysis
In general, the United States was concerned about the affairs of other Western Hemisphere nations, so it was natural for the U.S. to take an interest when Great Britain had a dispute with Venezuela in 1891. The United States insisted that the Monroe Doctrine called for the boundary dispute to be submitted for arbitration. After balking at first, Great Britain agreed. With the Monroe Doctrine strengthened, the U.S. also took an interest in the Cuban rebellion against its Spanish overlords in the late 1800s. In 1895, Spain imposed a military government that caused
the deaths of an estimated 200,000 Cubans from disease and starvation. Cuban exiles wanted America to become involved, but President Cleveland was reluctant.
The Cubans took action by bombing American sugar plantations in Cuba so that business owners would support the war. Newspapers in America also demanded U.S. intervention. Using sensational yellow journalism techniques, newspapermen such as William Randolph Hearst inspired a burst of national pride and a strong desire for an aggressive foreign policy, known as jingoism. Two other events—the insulting de Lome letter from the Spanish ambassador and the sinking of the U.S.S. Maine that killed more than 250 American sailors—made U.S. intervention in the rebellion inevitable
American forces easily defeated the Spanish in the brief Spanish-American War. In the Treaty of Paris signed in 1898, the Spanish government recognized Cuba’s independence and sold the island of Puerto Rico as well as the Pacific islands of Guam and the Philippines to the United States. The treaty was barely passed by Congress before many began worrying about how to handle these new territories. The Filipinos felt betrayed by America because they had fought the Spanish alongside American forces, and a three-year war in the Philippines resulted in the death of 4,000 American soldiers as well as many thousands of Filipinos. Cuba was freed but was nominally under American control. The Platt Amendment allowed Cubans self-government but limited Cuban ability to conduct its foreign affairs without American approval. Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States.
In addition to the annexation of the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific, U. S. business interests deposed the queen of Hawaii, Liliuokalani, who opposed American control of the islands and established a republic requesting annexation. This was granted by President McKinley. The U.S. also gained the important harbor of Pago Pago in Samoa and pursued an open door policy with China.
Section 3: A New Foreign Policy
Main Ideas
- After McKinley’s assassination in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, seeing the United States as a world power, pursued a vigorous and aggressive foreign policy.
- Presidents Taft and Wilson, while recognizing America’s status as a world power, toned down Roosevelt’s brash foreign policy and put their own mark on developing U.S. foreign policy.
Summary and Analysis
Theodore Roosevelt was a hero from the Spanish-American War when he became McKinley’s vice president. When McKinley was assassinated in 1901, Roosevelt became the country’s youngest president at 42 years old. He was a firm believer in a strong, aggressive foreign policy and immediately began to pursue such a policy. His first interest was in developing a quick link between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by digging a canal through Panama. When negotiations with the government of Colombia who owned the land stalled, Roosevelt took action by sanctioning and supporting a Panamanian revolt against Colombia and making an agreement with the newly formed Panamanian Republic. The Panama Canal was completed in 1914, six months ahead of schedule. This heavy-handed action by the United States hurt relations with South and Central America. Roosevelt developed the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine which claimed that the U.S. did not want to annex any territory in Central or South America but that if conditions there threatened American interests in any way, America would get involved. He demonstrated this when the island nation of Santo Domingo went bankrupt and European nations threatened military action to collect their debts. The U.S. stepped in, paid the debts, and took over the financial affairs of the island until the government was solvent.
Roosevelt also felt justified in getting involved in events in the Pacific to protect U.S. trade and interests there. He won a Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating peace between Russia and Japan and persuading Russia to give Manchuria back to China, thus keeping trade with China open to all nations. The U.S. had now firmly established its role as a world power.
Roosevelt’s handpicked successor, William Howard Taft, tried to continue Roosevelt’s strong foreign policy but was not as aggressive as Roosevelt. He believed in “dollar diplomacy,” using monetary rather than military persuasion to achieve his ends. This use of money to achieve goals also angered many in Latin American who resented U.S. efforts to buy everything it wanted. President Wilson differed from Roosevelt in a more fundamental way. Rather than using American interests to determine foreign policy, Wilson wanted to apply moral and legalistic standards to diplomacy. His use of these ideals to guide U.S. involvement in a Mexican Revolution had poor results as it soured relations between Mexico and the United States for decades.
Section 4: Debating America’s New Role
Main Idea
- After the Spanish-American War, there was intense debate in the U.S. about the wisdom of imperialism.
Summary and Analysis
Americans were greatly divided on the issue of imperialism. Those against imperialism established the Anti-Imperialist League and included politician William Jennings Bryant, novelist Mark Twain and reformer Jane Addams. They had several reasons to oppose the imperialistic policies of the United States. First, they believed imperialism went against the basic American ideal of “liberty for all.” They also felt that people in annexed territories deserved the basic rights guaranteed to all in the Constitution. Furthermore, they felt that imperialism threatened democracy at home because standing armies used in foreign conflicts could just as easily be used to put down dissent on American soil.
Some anti-imperialists also felt that imperialism itself was a form of racism and should not be promoted. Other opponents of imperialism actually were racist and were afraid that the annexation of foreign territories would encourage those of other races to come settle in the United States. A final arena of arguments was economic. Many felt it was too expensive to support an army and did not want increased taxation and compulsory military service.
One of the arguments used to support imperialism was that it helped to protect American economic interests abroad and helped to secure the borders of our nation. Supporters of imperialism also commended the increased nationalism that came with expansion.
The United States was quickly becoming so powerful that the other nations of the world were divided in their opinion of the country. On one hand, any nation who needed financial or military help began to turn to the Untied States for aid. On the other hand, many nations resented that aid even as they asked for it. They saw it as American intrusion and evidence of American power. America struggled with balancing national interests and its relationships with other nations. It is a dilemma that continues to plague American diplomacy to this day.
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